?
2
‘JOURNAL OF SCIBNCE,
. AND ARTS. eo
t
‘ Tim mothy D. Porter. Colum
SMERICEN . = + Say ee
aia a
meee CONDUCTED BY ~ See :
BENJAMIN SILLIMAN, nba a
PROFESSOR OF CHEMISTRY, MINERALOGY, ETC. IN YALE COLLEGE ; CORRES”
PONDING MEMBER OF THE SOCIETY OF ARTS, MANUFACTURES AND COM.
MERCE OF LONDON, MEMBER OF THE ROYAL MINERALOGICAL
SOCIETY OF DRESDEN, AND ig VARIOUS LITERARY AND oni an
SCIENTIFIC uigecne IN AMERICA
VOL. IT.....No. 2.....Novemper, 1820. ; = “
ENTIRE NUMBER, VI-
mee A
i
»
tit
NEW-HAVEN:
PRINTED AND PUBLISHED BY 8. CONVERSE, FOR THE EDITOR.
Sold by the greed and Howe & Spalding, New- Seca: Samuel G.
—— Hart rtford ; ; Cummings & Hilliard, Boston ; Ezekiel Goodale,
el, Maine; A. T. Goodrich & Co. New- . Littell and Henry.
Philedelpbins Caleb Atwater, Cocleniaeye Thomas I Ray, —
, Geo.; Henry Whipple, riage M . rd J. Coale, Balti
bia, $3.0. ; John Mill, Charleston, 8. C,; oul,
Jer & Hutchins, Providence R I.
ae
was
-
oy
™
;
PREFACE.
*
=
As two volumes of this work are now completed, the
from our soelisaies sai ‘ olle
est, th and the Sout Pom and even occasionally from
other countries, so that the Editor fools himself justified in
pelieving, that this work is regarded as a national Journal.
{f therefore this view be one which patriotic and honoura-
ble men can approve, and if the execution has in any good
— corresponded with the design, it is to be hoped
that the American public will not permit the work to
languish, for want of pecuniary patronage. This is the on-
ly material difficulty which it has encountered, and this is
far from being removed. A more extended patronage is in- —
dispensable to its permanent establishment, and, should it
who can wonder if our national charac-
ter should be even more severely (perhaps even more de-
: lan ever.
called upon to state the pecunia-
appropriate | sponsibilities of the
not lightly to abandon the oe
He will peste: cintit it is ascertained, whether the va
somerioats Republié, with ten millions of inhabitants, with
=
g
a
na
ao.
oO
oe
ons, and with immensely diversified interests, growing out
re) those physical resources, which the bounty of God has
given us, will permit this effort, devoted to the advancement
of its wealth and its power, its honor and its dignity, to be-
come abortive, with the gloomy presage that it ma:
ts ea any similar enterprize can be successfully pros-
ovale College, November 1, 1820.
TABLE OF CONTENTS.
Vol. 2—No. I.—APRIL, 1820.—Enrinr No. VI.
TOPOGRAPHY, GEOLOGY AND MINERALOGY.
Page
Ant. I. are of a ond “ the summit of Mount
; by Dr. Jeremiah Van Abs ig ee 1
Il. Account of th Baal I Mountains by Mr.
Bar rrens of the > West 5 PY: Mr.
beet i nf lal
FOSSIL ZOOLOGY.
[V. Observations on some species of zoophytes, shells,
&c. principally fossil, by Thomas Say, (concluded) 34
MEDICAL BOTANY.
. V.* On the Ergot of Rye, by Dr. Wiliam Tully 45
_ MATHEMATICS. | Pen
ra ° * Mathomarieatl Pr oblems, with geometrical con-
_ structions and demonstrations, by . oo
dore Strong—(to be continued)
HARMONICS.
aV I. On different modes of expressing the sieaasi
Pend — of Musical Intervak, with some re-
= ERRATUM.
In the Text, the Sascan Numeral was inadyertently omitted, before this
article, and inc sequence, the sa = pre are numbered, erroneous!y—
i. @. Art. Viin the t text, should be V
CONTENTS.
marks, in commendation of Professor Fisher’s
peperdonely. euipews Dasscanay By: Mr. nie
rarey, Senior
MEDICAL CHEMISTRY.
VIII. Abstract and translation of Dr. F. Magendie’s
late Publication on Bare Ts, by oe ener
with remarks
PHYSICS, MECHANICS, CHEMISTRY, ano roe ARTS.
{X. Description of a Machine invented by David
Bushnell for submarine navigation and for the de-
struction of ships of war, with an account of the
first attempt with it to destroy some of the British
pee lying at New-York, ay Charles Griswold,
9
X. pice on the Révolving Sram Engine of Mo-
101
rey, by Mr. little
XE Mr. a on the cd Steain Engine, in
reply to Mr. Doolittle 106
Xi. Otreteations on the Dry Rot, by Col. George
114
ibbs
XI. On Heat ind Light, (Grst communication) by
Mr. Samuel Morey 118
- On Heat and Lgl, (second communication) |
byte same
XV. On some curious and singular a ppearances re
snow and hail, by A. Chak
XVI. Socio on Almosphesi Dust fi in rely to Mr
132
XVI. a sf existence of Ksaieeidin in the Sea
Vittata or Potatoe Fly, by Dr. 1. F. Dana 137
INTELLIGENCE AND MISCELLANIES.
1. American Geological Society . - 139
2. Curious Geological Facts 144
3. Professor N. Smith on Bruce bones found in fe
sand stone *
CONTENTS.
Page
- Professor Bigelow on the Sea Serpent _ 1a
. Revue Encylopédique 165
6. Miscellaneous articles of Porcign Intelligence, e com-
municated by Dr. J. W. Web 166
7. Curious facts ceageer: way poison - 168
8. Map of the heights of Mountain a ee
9. Cabinet of NEhGrsls, for sale See seul 169
10. American Cinnabar and Native Lead | - 170
11. Means of obtaining Light ~—- - - 171
12. Troy Lyceum - - - ~ 173
13. Fibrous Sulphat of Barytes c
14, Red Sand Peg ipemsuipn | in North Carolina 175
- 276 .
16. Fetid fluor Sasie = “
17. Effects of Cold on Lake Champlain == - - —,_-:177
18. Stromnite, a new Mineral - : go
19. German Correspondent = - - oe te
20. Exploring rt - se ab.
21. Mermaid - - ib.
22. Bubbles blown in — Ros - 179
23. Effects of temperature on Seite feeling, 2. JOO
Plates in this Number at the conclusion.
1. Figures to illustrate Strong’s Problem
9: ca ee es with Morey’s 5 Riveting Engine,
3. The sa
Spa eee ee ee
TABLE OF CONTENTS.
i
Vol, 2.—No. Il —NOVEMBER, 1820.—Entire No. VI.
~ GEOLOGY, MINERALOGY, AND TOPOGRAPHY.
Arr. I, Account of the Geology, Mineralogy, Seieks, we.
vn the by ee region of New- — k and obey
ter, fiaed :
Tl. “secltig Baraalie 4 ti Me Caudiia 6F New Hatandul=
aaa in Connecticut, with notices of the Geology,
eralogy, Scenery, &e. by the Editor -
Ty. pessoas of Minerals, by Professors Dewey, Eaton,
Douglas, and Dana, and by the Rey. F.C. Schae effer,
and Dr. I. W. Webster
VY. Account of ancient bones and ef some feild shells found
in Ohio, by Caleb Atwater, Esq.
VI. Gepligicn!' section from Williamstown, Mass. to > Trey, |
N. Y. on the sige? by Professor Dewey
notice of a oy 4 tain to be a variety
of Wavellite, oy the bs
o
LS)
201
VIL R inser oer! on the environs “en Conhase Bree near the
2
outh of the Genesee, by Dr. John L Bigsby
BOTANY.
VIII. Floral Calendar for 1815, a 17, 18, and 19, ent at
is Coole 254
Deerfield, Mass. by Dr. Den
TX. On the seaasaases of a late paste $ utumn, given by
late flowering pea ag by Professor Dewe
X. On Be gpa menget te om the River Maple, ar
XI. On phe Oiieotsl Chené aa the oll ‘oliaks it affords
MATHEMATICS. _
XII. Mathematical Problems, with geometrical constructions
and demonstrations, by Professor Theodore Strong
255
ar
266
Stoll
~ CONTENTS.
CHEMISTRY, PHYSICS, AND THE ARTS.
Pagé.
XIII. Strictures on Dr. E. D. Clark’s book on the om Blow-
i de M. D. 281
Explanation of the
XIV. Experimental tinafty Fat the ‘chemical properties and
Saati and medicinal virtues of the common Hop,
b j
A's Account of new Endiometers, oe se Profesor Robert
3
are
Explanation of the slate
XVI. sree of the New-Jersey ‘Ores of "Rae,
Berthie
, Engineer of the ere Cont of Mines, (rom :
3
the An. des Mines
XVH. A new process for Nitrous “Ether, by Proteasor Hare
XVII. Dactien of a differential ptveee. > by Pro-
DN
Heat in the asad of the Moon
3
XIX. Account of a new. Anflammable Air Lamp, ‘by Profs
: 3
sor Jacob oe
XX. Account of an Senrowenieat in the Electrical Lamp, by
33.
Dr. James Cutbush -
XXI. Account of a Gelatinous Meteor, by Rufus Sisves, Esq:
XXII. - the pegitallination of om dy,F phecenc! Jacob
INTELLIGENCE AND MISCELLANIES.
Foreign Literature and Science.
Number of books in the German and Prussian libraries—Py-
roligneous acid ; confirmation of its powers—Botanic gar-
Man
dens in Austria—Manuscripts of Hertolsheups+ iA. new
plant with febrifuge gine
New works, &c. at ic Antificial substitute for the
Lit rome yee aceke ae mode of killing animals—Acad-
4
emy of Cadiz—Terrible pale of lightning s—-Hot water in-
_ the streets of Paris
Reduction or enlargement of the size of divtatiog’—Siean)
dia vigalion =F aclities of conveyance to and from London
—Early discovery of the pyroligneous acid
Ancient copy of Homer’s sae Heat . a vacuuum—Eduea-
tion in Africa -
335
: 337
341
CONTENTS.
e
ceca ts society of arts—Liberality of the king of Den- ay
trk—The root of the saat a Sis al Reealcie: of
ae Low Countries
Death ig ae ae ieslings-Subllé spirit of Cows Ro-
manzow—New hydraulic machine—Egyptian society 345
Progress of ok dt in Russia—Liberality of the Swedish
Paki vessel on aoe Clyde—Letters sat ace in
Patis and London—Literature of Italy 346
Artificial gum and sugar—Cashmee ¢ goat—Drawia ng in pe
Transparent pictures—Oil in grape gepil—<Iudtiiiction of Af
ee ee of uatiaG lat tba ‘ppmees of dis-
tinguished French persons . 348
Metallic > vegetati ion—Boracic acid, native 349
ring the purple o FCossios—Folminaing
gold—new aiials—Compoonds of mereur
Lignite near rere —— s —_ on the district of
Auv
Geology of Se Scotland—Death é M. F. ide St. Fond—New
minera ogical dictionary 352
Geological society of Lon Sibi Onajn of dialer 353
Gedogic al Map and Atlas of E Heagiand, &c. —Conite—Eme-
rald 354
Obituary notice of Dr. Murray - 355
Red snow of Baffin’s Bay—Breccia of ‘Mont D’o - 356
<sraigh Ae ania of grafting tees-—Phosphori acid in
lan fe aestean of alcohol . 8
Hydrophobia—Thermometer—new geometrical ook 359
Latent heat of vapours—Boiling point of — . 361
Chlorine theory—Specific gravity of the gase 362
Tode in spon = AOE sae a ape a new metal Systema al-
36
Astronomical Sadiaty of Leddo - 364
ights and other Hinpesbinicale in Glas asgow 365
Columbian and other es woh sescr ss of the New-York
m -
Pees ons Geolo sical Society - 372
Pharmaceutical se Oe of Baiytes - 373
Carbonat of boon a oe of 1819—Oxid of cere
and chro of iro
Cylinders of pe cbahace SE AE Mineralogy—Sulphate ra
magnesia—Hudson association 375
Flaoric acid in mica—Remark - - - 376
ERRATA.
Page 143 line 7 from top, for twenty read one hundred and
172 line 10 from top, for 1, read }
“ 264 “ 3 from bottom, far folins read ais
266. © 13 in demonstrations omit nal
282 “ 6 from bottom, for Dr. Pursh read Dr. ‘Parish,
“* 338 “ 4 and14 from top, for spicule read spicula.*
B The articles of intelligence at 166 of this volume,
wer communicated: as fo be: eee a
y.tbe eae oot not to be published in that form.
* 1t was spicula in the MS.
~»@B0«--
DIRECTIONS TO THE BINDER.
Plates at the end.
~ Plate I.
Plate II.
Plate IL. on mage Be
_ Plate III. on mathema
Fifth, Professor Hare’s ‘late on the Blowpipe,& &e:
Sixth, the remaini ing plate on Eudiomet
iat wh US bh te Sd a
ge i ile on alle ee
you will excuse such errors as may occur in
THE
AMERI CAN
JOURNAL OF SCIENCE, &e.
—S
TOPOGRAPHY, GEOLOGY AND MINERALOGY.
TO PROFESSOR SILLIMAN.
Geneva, July 19, 1819.
Dear Sir,
L TAKE the liberty to — you a hasty sketch of a short
tour that I completed a few days ago, including the Vale of
Chamouny—and an ascent to the top of Mount Blanc. As
this latter is a journey not often made, and never before by
an American traveller, I trust no apology «will be thought
necessary.
As I have suffered much both from heat lk cold, and
am still labouring under an affection of the. -eyes and face,
&e. As to the statement, I copy seperate made on the
mount, and soon after my arrival in the V:
ee oe much respect, I have the boars to bes
—— meet
VAN RENSSELAER.
erwin: ae Italy iy the grand — of the Simplon,
which, more than his victories or reverses, will contri
to the fame of Bo a aa we an the scenery of the
Vou. IL.....No. 1
2
2 ’ flccount of a journey to the
Vallais and the south side of the Lake before arriving at
Geneva. e had scarcely finished with the curiosities of
the place, when my friend and fellow-traveller, Mr. W.
Bene of Baltimore, ee a visit to the Vale of Cha- |
This delightful valley, the most elevated in Europe, and
almost separated from the world, lies 18 leagues S. E. of
Geneva—it is 5 leagues long, and 1-2 a league broad, and
is covered during the few months of summer, with the most
luxuriant vegetation. To the North, rises the chain of Red
Needles (Aiquilles sag on 3) to the South fe gigantic mass
of Mount Blanc; to the N. E. isthe Col de Balme; and to
the S. Ww. the mountains of Lacha and of Vaudagne. The
river Arve, joined by Arvieron, that gushes impetuously .
from beneath the glacier des Bois, flows rapidly through the
length of the vale; and receives the tributary streams of
glaciers that increase its size only to augment the volume of
the Rhone, into which it pours its accumulated waters. 'The
beauty of the vale, t the pve of its soil, the innocence and
simplicity of its 1a _ and the sit ‘ity
scape, in which mountains of ice alternate with fiélds-of
flowers, have long drawn the attention of Travellers. Each
glacier, each needle, each mountain forms a distinct euri-
osity, and a whole season might pass pleasantly enough in
contemplating nature in her mildest and in her most chillmg — _
moods,—for she smiles and frowns alternately on the vale.
The most interesting object that strikes the attention, .
where every thing is worthy of notice, is Mount Blane. The
frozen glaciers, that like feet seem to support its huge mass
in the air, while its snow capped summit is lost in the.
heavens, form a singular contrast to the green fields in
which they rest. Having already visited some of the high-
est points of ms iearade in “ohm no ton, = as it ex-
tends through the Tuscan, the Roman and the Neapolitan
states into Sicily, I felt a desire to stand on a lofty mount
before me, and mentioned it to my companion.’ The diffi-
culty of the undertaking, the many failures, and the small
number of those who have succeeded, seemed at first very
discouraging—but we resolved upon the attempt and sent
out for guides. These it was ‘not difficult to a at por
as the inhabitants considered it a mark of courage and per-
severance, it is ever thought an honour to have song on the
“ : :
ete ee
Rs at oe eee ee a
Sie Spee eS henley ailesee SG 8. ap
of the land-
Summit of Mount Blane. 3
summit, and is mentioned in praise of him who has o banply
attained the object. It was therefore difficult to choose—
but we took those who had before made the ae The
women too were to be consulted, for lowers anxious they
might be that their sons should procure the honor, they
were loth to let their husbands canines so many perils.
n vain did the guides represent to us the dangers and
parabens of the undertaking—in vain expatiate on the heat,
the cold, the fatigue, and above all on the many failures.
We conversed with Balmat and Paceard, the two first who
ascended, and ering ap haran A agreed. with a master guide,
appointed the next day for ent.
At 3 o’clock A. M. on the 1th inst.-mass was said for a
successful journey and a safe aarts and at 5 we commen-
seed ome SeR9 —our guides preceded with the i r arti-
2 our W: ae = = cae “the ite r ed
<r. region that extends double the. distance. up the
mountain. Here we found ourselves at the edge of the Gla-
cier Boxsyps (one of the grandest of the mount,) and for twe
leagues mounted near to its side. The way was painful
and difficult, winding on the mountain side, and crossing
streams that pour constantly from the py a regions. We
en Veteran hero of the siege mount, 4 first sg foot
on its frozen summit, had thus far accompanied us: his age
prevented him from ascending farther, and wishing us a
safe return, he retraced our mountain path. Thus far we
had followed a kind of path, but once on the snow, a bleak
region extended before us,—no footstep marked the white
surface—no sign of life or animation arose to cheer us. Here
too commenced the dangers of the way, and we were for-
ced to follow in regular succession :—first went a guide with
two oles to search for crevices, that we might avoid
shberinten followed a man with an axe to cut foot holes
in ; then came two who changed with the above
and Giese a relief: next followed a man with the 1 adder—
at some little distance I followed tied by a rope round the
waist to two guides, one of whom Bracadad, the other fol-
lowed me—and lastly came Mr. H. tied in the same manner
to two other guides. Each of the men carried a knapsack
4 Accétint of journey to the
with provisions, blankets, sheets for a tent, cords, coals, a pan
to melt. snow in, a chafingdish, bellows, &c. &c.; and each
of us was armed with a pole about 9 feet long, with a sharp
iron spike in the end, to support ourselves and to prevent
us from falling.—Our line of march seemed rather formida-
ble as we ascended and descended the broken glaciers.
We encountered many crevices, some of which were dis-
tinctly seen ; others more than half hid by the snow. Oc
lly. masses of ice had sunk, and left the ‘remaining
wall rising 40 or 50 feet above us: in such cases it was ne-
to search the lowest end of the wall, and ascend by
the ladder, or by cutting stepping holes in the side. This
however could be attempted only where the wall was not
more than 20 feet high, as our ladder was only of that
length. Where besides the wall, there was a crevice at the
bottom, the ascent was indeed dread fis ; for while crossing
a gulph that yawned 150 or 200 feet. beneath us, we were
climbing the ladder _— a side of ice, where the
least mg must have precipitate aust immediate death.
Where the the
eeedaoet, sg we Sega ap on pe
In a few cases it occurred that an arched bridge of snow
connected the sides, and here it behoved us to tread lightly
and with caution, lest breaking through, we should have
sunk into a pit from which it would have been impossible
to return. Often frustrated in our course by unforseen
crevices and walls, we were forced to make a lengthened ~
march ; but at last clambered up a solitary rock that rises.
from the snow, 8 leagues from the village. It is called the
Grand Mulet, and having served several travellers as a rest-
ing place, was chosen by us.as the only rock-on which it
was practicable to sleep. It iscomposed of quartz, and
micaceous. schist rising in perpendicular lamina 60 or 70 —
feet above the ice, and 7,800 feet above the level of the sea.
A few pieces of schist arranged into a kind of platform-af-
ford a tolerable testing place for him who is not over fas-
tidious on such a journey. On one side rises the sharp
Aiguille de Midi, and on the other the Dome de Couté, that
seems to soar far above Mt. Blanc. It was yet early in the
afternoon, and the sun beat down so powerfully as to render
the heat very inconvenient :—oceasionally however a cl
ef thick mist enveloped us—it was then extremely chilling
:
;
3
5
Summit of Mount Blanc, 5
and uncomfortable. While on the grand Mulet we observ-
ed a beautiful butterfly, of the most vivid and brilliant col-
ours, making its way towards the summit of the mountain.
At 6 P.M. Reaumur’s Thermometer stood at 4°,(41° of Fah-
renheit) above freezing. With the aid of a blanket, and a
sheet placed so as to keep off the wind we formed a eared
ble tent, and lay down to refresh ourselves. Night soox
closed upon us, and rendered our situation still more airplith
ing ante aout rg of darkness was we wel by roi
big hard, ¥ we sane wit 2 t fatigue or danger, to
the grand Plateat ice of 4 leagues : it isa plain, with
am ele eX ueates
; tending al Ya F
ss mate some time, and one the
pa found himself anabile th proceed. We however went
on after taking some refreshment: the air was much rarefi- ~
ed, and the sun exceedingly warm. At the end of the Pla-
teau began the steepest ascent :—dreadful avalanches that
seemed falling with their own weight hung over our way,
while fearful chasms yawned beneath us. The elevation
was too great to allow us to ascend in a straight line, our
path therefore was in a zigzag course towards the = every
step being cut in the ice with a hatchet. ‘The path was so
difficult and the rarefaction of the air so great, that even the
stoutest guides could notadvance more than fifteen steps with-
out stopping to rest—and Mr. H. found himself so much in-
commoded, that we feared he would have to return. His
perseverance enabled him to proceed, and at 11 o’clock we |
arrived at the petit Mulet, a granitic rock that just shows
itself above the snow ; here some of the guides being much
fatigued we rested some time. From this rock the ascent —
is not steep, but very fatiguing, on account of the rarefac-
tion of the air—we however reached the summit at half past
12—and stood upon the highest point os min The top
is formed by a ridge running N. Ean S. W. about 12 feet —
above the little plain that lies to the neeebs As to the depth
of snow upon it we are unable to form a conjecture. Bo- -
naparte, after many fruitless attempts, succeeded in having —
6 Account of a jotmyite the
placed here a pyramid 12 feethigh. It was visible for three
years, but has gradually disappeared, and has not been seen
for some years. In the sun the Thermometer was at the
freezing point; in the shade 3° of Reaumur below it; (25°,
25 of Fahrenheit.) A bright sun shone on us, through a
vault of indigo biue, in which not a spot was obscured by a
cloud. To the North, at the distance of nearly 100 miles,
rose the black ridge of Jura: farther east, lay the mountains
of ee and of a 3—to the east St. Gotheed: and
Tenentte and the little village shone in the smiling plain, be-
set with fields and woods ;—on the other the. Vale d’Aoste,
with her cheerful river, extended her Te-
lieve the eye. The glaciers of Bossons, des Bois, d 7 eee
tiere and of Tour seemed sliding into the meadows—while
a ees waves of the: ret a fisthe seemed ed hushed into a
the J — ert, with the cece deg
ee eviecans We ee an ohana woe a half on the small
plain to fhe: south of the crowning ridge, and here four of — |
our guides laid themselves on de snow and slept for some
respira-
minutes. We did not feel fatigued, but found our respira
tion much quickened and our pulse greatly accelerated 5 th
was particularly the case with Mr. Howard who is ofa faller
habit than myself. Though we had provisions, none of us
felt an inclination to eat ; “but our thirst was great, and we
found vinegar and water the most refreshing beverage. We
_* istol three times nearly filled with panei and well
; the report was that of a squib.
ae we began our descent with an intention to examine
the different rocks that broke through the snow. ‘The high-
est is about 350 feet below the summit, formed of
tables, that lay loose on each other, and of whieh feldspar. is
‘ the predominant EE The petit Mulet is of the same
formation—and IT may here add, that, to be minute wo
only be to give you what has already been printed.
The descent was perhaps more fatiguing than the ascent 3
had been, and far more alarming, for we now saw the crev-
ices that yawned beneath us; and the reflection of a bright
sess ee
Summit of Mount Blane. 7
sun from the glistening snow alundet prevented us from seeing
our path, the least deviation from which would have been
inevitable death. Part of one of the avalanches that threat-
ened us in our ascent, had already fallen and lay scattered
over our path and the part that yet hung suspended above
us seemed ready to follow its fallen half. Dreadful indeed
was the silence in which, with hurried step, we hastened
down the sidehill.—Fearing to raise a look from the path-
way, and scarcely daring to breathe, we arrived near the
bottom. The danger being now past, we turned to survey
hanging mass ;—the eye was soon satisfi nipncanit in
speechless meditation we resumed our wa
At the grand Plateau we found the guide who had re-
turned—and it was here we dis iscovere ae naaicn our slikemome-
ter was b seine Manse Es
nee of a sun, now more reubae Shan |
had melted ie snow ; and after leaving the Phasshits ore
sunk every third step, nearly to the waist. It was of no
use to send the guides to break the way, nor to seek a new
road—it was immaterial if we followed their track, or made
one for ourselves—we still sunk. Our progress was further
interrupted by some crevices that we had not seen in the
morning—and being wide, with one side higher than the
other, our ladder was of no use. At these places we sat on
the snow, and slid down so fast as not to break the frail co-
vering of the crevice. This was the most fatiguing part.of
the whole journey, and we were happy once more to climb
the steep sides of the Grand Mulet. ‘The sun had set upon
the valley, but its rays yet bea ark nore our elevated | rock
the days it seemed in pity to to lend its ts lingering, dight
, nig ,
Fatigue had nearly lulled. us to dep sali thinkideron
ee last journey of the morrow, some of the guides turned
to see the path by which we had ascended the. day before.
While yet following its traces they saw part of it lost in an
avalanche—a mass had fallen im, and our road was iret
a and unrefreshing were the hours of our rep
and some co als ain the Pee eee
d was ’exce
constantly enflamed ues the bellows, served: to keep us from
8 Account of a journey to the
freezing. Our faces pained us almost intolerably——our eyes
were so inflamed that we could scarcely distinguish an ob-
ject at the distance of a few feet—our fingers and toes were
nearly benumbed—and the whole system disordered, not
so much from fatigue as from a strange influence o the at
mosphere.
Early on the morning of the 13th we began the labor of
the last day’s journey. Our path had been partly lost in
an avalanche, and partly dissolved in the melting sun of
yesterday—and we followed the track of the Chamois, that
has never been known to err. With much difficulty could
we discern our way, as we were nearly blind—the crape and
goggles we had worn the day before, were now of no avail.
We happily quitted the ice soon after the sun shot its first rays
on the mountain we had left—having been forty-five hours on
the frozen surface. Happy were we all, when arriving again
at the woody region, we heard the tinkling of the herd——we
reposed a few minutes. in the es ees arrived
at Chamouny at 10 a sloniees
‘ne went im ly
ee ey
after
‘in cream, weit to bed, but not she rest. <5 Peale
lids were glued together, and our faces entirely blistered:
When the sun was down, we rose for a few minutes—and
again lay down. Our fatigue overcame our pain—and ex-
hausted nature sunk to sleep :—we awoke in the morning
much refreshed—so that on the 14th we came to Geneva in
darkened carriage. The skin has fallen from our faces,
which are now, though raw, much better—the inflammation
of the eyes is subsiding, but still troublesome and confines
us to the house.
The minute and accurate observations of Mons. de eae
sure have left but little for future travellers. His genius for
a time seemed to reside in the Alps, and it was his delight
to stand in reality or in imagination on those elevated sum-
mits from which the world seemed to lie below him. His
daring spirit led him to climb the most difficult and danger-
our points—and it was on one of these, the Col de Geant,
that im 1788, he passed fifteen days in performing a series of
physical and meteorological experiments of the most inter-
esting nature—at the elevation of 10,578 feet above the sea.
His researches on the different summits are of the same
kind, and have been found accurate by the test of succeeding
Summit of Mount Blane. 8
ot tions. Our ascent to the summit - ee Blanc,
=
ay be considered a journey of curiosity: but it was
our wish to examine the temperature and pre st of the
atmosphere, to obtain an exact knowledge of ee _
of the frozen region, and to a AUEVEY the rocks. therm
+
ture at the top, we were about to notice it at aad distances
on our descent. rvessels of air from the summit were
injured in sliding down the declivities or in wading through
the snow.—As to the rocks little can be said of them: the
nature of the mountain has long been well known, and it
would be useless to enlarge upon the accounts already given.
Thus our journey has been of no avail in adding to our
e of the rarefaction of air at the top, yet we are
i eecbe so : secre <a
is t00 wo ow a portion —
that the attempt i been made. -
Mons. de Saussure jones the absolute es s Mount
Blanc to be 14,700 feet: Delue made it 14,346: Prof.
Pictet says it is 14,556 : while M. Tralles, who tae measur-
ed it three times, with the same result makes it 14,793 feet :
making its absolute height 5,355 feet less than that of Chim-—
borazo ; but its relative height is greater, as it rises 11,532
feet above the vale of Chamouny, while Chimbdorazo is ele-
vated only 11,232 feet above the es of Tapia—making
a difference of 300 feet relative height
It was in 1760 that M, de Saussure seems first to have
thought of pak ah. Mount Blanc, and offered a reward to
the person who should discover a way to the summit. His
offers were aaa to induce many to make the attempt—
and for twenty-five years, unsuccessfully. The most impor-
fant, trials are recorded as Ws..
first attempt was made i in 1762 2 by an inhabitant of
Chantapuxs ; he failed as he only h
In 1775 four men, following the same route, advanced to
the mount de Ja Cole, running eal lel to the glacier Bossons.
In 1783 three others tried the same path, but were forced
to return by a strong desire to sleep, which would have been
fetal, if in “tease .
LV Ohne tH -adtOn ke a4
10 Account of a journey, Se.
In the same year, M. Bourrit of Geneva was driven back
by a snow storm. The following year he was again frus~
trated by the violence of cold and fatigue.
In 1785 M. de Saussure and M. Bourrit made another
attempt with fifteen guides. They arrived the evening of the
second day at the Needle de la Gote, at the elevation of 11,442
feet above the sea: the softness of the snow and their fa-
tigue made them return.
In 1786 six men made another trial ; but were forced to
felinquish the enterprise. One of them, named J. Balmat,
wandered from the rest, and passed the night alone on the
glacier—in the morning he found himself near the top. He
returned and suffered much from an affection of the face
and eyes. He was attended by Dr. Paccard, and in grati-
tude offered to conduct him to the summit—which he did a
few weeks afterwards. They found it extremely cold—
their provisions froze in their Baie. and the ink in their
inkhorns—they remained only a few nt and descend-
ed es oe Ate in a prea see tion. Dr. P. had his
d feet frozen—and Balmat’s face was disfigured for
ays.
The same year de Saussure tried again without success.
The year following h
guides—and on the third day of his j journey ‘reached the sum-
mit. He passed there five hours in making those observa-
tions and experiments that have gained him so much and
so deserved reputation. On the fifth day they returned to
Chamouny.
The next day M. Bourrit made his fourth attempt, but was .
forced to return..
In 1783 he tried again with Mr.. Woodley, an English-
man, and M. Camper, a Hollander—a storm dispersed the
party, but Mons. B. with three guides gained the summit. They
descended immediately. Mr. Woodley had his hands and
feet frozen—M. Bourrit was forced to use ice applications
for parka days—the guides suffered from frozen fingers
In 1 1790 Col. Beaufoy,, an English Officer, gained the
summit, and returned with the fear of losing his sight—he
however recovered.
i792 four Englishmen undertook the task—but were
‘aed to return—all of them much hurt. One guide had
his leg broken, and another fractured his skull.
Sl ec ee ie ih hi aaa oan eee Lage
Account of the Kaatskill Mountains. il
In 1802 Messrs. Forneret and d’Ostern with seven guides
gained the top, and declared on their return that nothing
could induce them to make another attem
In 1816 Count du Lusy, a Russian, ascended a =
above the petit Mulet, but was nay to return—His
were so frozen that the skin came with his na
and he was long forced to use sihchass Two of his guides
were frozen nearly to the same degree
In 1817 Count roe te a Pole, gained the top with
eleven guides—his nose and ears were frozen
There have Sasa various attempts made by persons who
returned after the first or on the second day; such trials have
not been recorded.
Arr. m Aeon of he Kaatekilt Mountains by Mr.
# enry E. Dwient. — ¥
TO THE EDITOR OF THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE, &€c.
Dear Sir,
Tue following description of the Kaatskill Mountains,
and of the country in the vicinity, has been delayed much
longer than I intended, and is much less perfect than I could
is
During the last summer I made an excursion to this chain,
me examined the prospects and geology for several miles
und the lakes. The scenery is in the highest degree
beautiful and sublime, and well deserves the best efforts of
the muse and of the pencil.
I have been particular in ih the variegated pros-
pects which these mountains pre as little or nothing is
known of the existence of such song excepting in the
immediate vicinity. Few even of those who live within a
few hours ride, have curiosity enough to visit it. This
scenery, including the numerous cascades, ravines, preci ipi-
ces, and the prospect from the top of this chain, while it af
forded me much more pleasure than a view of the falls o
Niagara, awakened emotions not less elevated.
Thave mentioned these mountains to more than fifty: per-
sons since I visited them, but I have not met with more than
12 Account of the Kaatskill Mountains.
five or six who had ever heard of this sublime display of
nature’s workmanship.
The cascades which I have described, I visited Yobiedis
ately after the heaviest fall of rain that had ‘occurred within the
memory of the oldest inhabitant. Some idea can be formed
of the quantity of water that fell, when it is known that one
mile north of the village of Kaatskill, a ravine was formed
by the water directly through a wood, one hundred and
ninety-five feet in breadth, by seventy-nine in depth, for the
distance of nearly a furlong ; ; when it united its waters with
the Kaatskil] creek. As I was on the mountain at the time,
I took the opportunity to visit these cascades early the next
morning, and have described them as they then appeared.
Probably they will not appear to those who visit them in
summer season, to be adorned with all the lustre which
they exhibited at this time, but if seen in the spring; or after
a heavy shower, they, with the scenery around them, will
produce an effect on the mind of the —— which will bid
deenne to all description, — ;
| ne With much. respect,
"HENRY E. DWIGHT.
New-Haven, Deé. 20, 1819.
Geological and descripiiee account of the Kaatskill Moun-
tains and of the vicinity.
The town of Kaatskill is situated on a creek ‘casings the
same name, one mile from its confluence with the Hudson
river. This river is remarkable for the high banks which
bound it, exhibiting for 150 miles ~~ like an interval.
These Fags Fay, in saisinde from 20 20 to 400 fet pre-
solid sat compact 1 mass; again ae are pact age d.ofien
approximate to argillaceous slate. The strata - from
Account of the Kaatskill Mountains. 13
an inclination of a few degrees, to a horizontal position, ae
have one fissures filled with veins of Carbonate of Lim
a white colour, translucent, and presenting a fine oteteh
ization. “The Wacke varies in colour from light to dark
-brown, frequently Pee pai indurated clay. Ascending
the hill, veins of Flint, Hornstone and Pitchstone appear on
the curiae’ or in veins in'the Wacke: ‘The Pitchstoné is
of a black and dark green colour, and more abundant than
e Flint or a oahe etn
ae
Petrifactions.
“On the Keatskill ereek three miles above the town, is a
— ibs spent 20 ent in tae South of this fall, the
cite, &c. entrocites vary in length from one to six
inches, though rey sometimes exceed this. I saw imbed-
ded in one of the rocks, one of fifteen inches in length. The
lie on the surface and in an oblique and right angled posi-
tion. As these petrifactions are siliceous and the matrix
limestone, they rise above the surface, owing to hee greater
attrition of the rock. The entrocites commonly pear
straight, and resemble oe united to each other. nes
times they assume a twist earance, as if struggling to
escape when first Ga betdote= I observed here several pie-
ces of Madrepore adhering to the rock, or imbedded in it,
weighing from ten to twenty pounds. In these rocks are
veins of Flint, of several inches in width, partially covered
with crystals of Quartz. The rocks forming the bed of the
stream — to have been rent asunder, leaving cavities of
sev breadth, and ten in depth, in which, when
the stream is very low, most of the water runs.
Diamond Hill.
At the
creek, is a small elevation called Diam
et “number: of Sarto crystals recrys in it. The "wae
which compose this hill, bear a strong resemblance to those
in the hill between the river and the village, only they are
‘termination of Main-Street, the me of nd
‘om the
i4 Account of the Kaatskill Mountains.
more stratified. In these rocks several feet below the sur-
face, are many cavities partially filled with a black mud. In
this mud, large quantities of these crystals are found, varying
in size from a pipe stem, to several inches in diameter.
These crystals are commonly imperfect, presenting a sur-
face with several sides polished. They usually have cavi-
ties in them, partially filled with mud, probably owing to
the particles when ina state of solution, not being near
enough to attract each other. Several crystals containing
water in a fluid state, have been found in this hill. This
water appears in a cavity in the crystal, which is filled with -
this fluid and air. I have one found here, in which, by
changing its position, the air will rise in the tube, causing
the water to descend. In number IV. of the “ American
Journal of Science” is a description of a crystal of this kind,
found in this hill. Professor Dewey who describes it, sup-
poses the liquid to be naptha, from the fact that the “ fluid
did not freeze.” I have seen several crystals from this-hill
of this kind, and as far as I could form an opinion from the
appearance of the fluid as seen through this transparent me-
dium, I have supposed it to be water. As these crystals lie
in a black mud several feet below the surface, it would seem
improbable that Naptha should have been found mingled
with it, particularly as the rocks around it bear a strong re-
semblance to argillaceous slate. This oil is rarely if ever
found pure, and when pure is usually associated with Car-
bonate of Lime. A specimen of this kind belonging to a
friend of mine, when exposed to an atmosphere 6° or 8° be
zero of Fahrenheit, congealed. As the water filled most of
the cavity, it expanded during congelation, so as to burst
the crystal, and the liquid which had every appearance of
water evaporated. The fate of the crystal was not known
until some time after the evaporation of this fluid. The
large crystals are seldom transparent, owing to the mud and
riffs beneath the surface. Those of a small size are gene-
y transparent and perfect. The common form is a six
sided Prism, terminated at each end, by a six sided pyra-
mid. These crystals are frequently irised, presenting all
the colours of the Iris, owing to the fissures under the sur-
ace. I have seen several specimens of ‘Twin crystals that
were found in this hill, united to each other at one of theit —
adgese «66 18 eee Oe
ee ees ee
Account of the Kaatskill Mountains. 15
_ Between the village and the mountain, the country is al-
tered in its appearance. Near the western end of the bridge,
which crosses the Kaatskill.at the village, a hill rises to the
height of 150 feet. The rocks which compose this hill are
much more compact than those near the river. ey have
ayaa blue colour and bear a much stronger resemblance
trap. Half a mile west of this, a ridge of land rises to the
hei ht — fifty feet, when the country changes to Carbonate
of hese rocks are compact, and filled with petri-
aatne at the clam, entrocite, Si often in so great quanti-
ties as to compose one sixth of the rock. On the surface of
pa Limestone tract, I observed ‘ice specimens of red
asper.
On ank of the Kaater: ball (a the limestone region
which is about four miles in breadth,) there is a sulphurous
spring,* which is covered by the stream when the water is
high. The water of this spring is so nee impregnated
with sulphur, as to alter the colour of the stream for some
distance after its union with it. It has a Brae sulphurous
taste, fabs rods below the junction of these waters. When
ow the atmosphere around the spring is strongly
imtprevinted with the odour of Sulphuretted ydrogen Gas.
have been informed that a large piece of native sulphur,
was found near this spring a little below the surface.
Slate and Sand Stone tract.
Two miles from the base of the mountain, the Limestone
region terminates. Sand Stone immediately appears. The
earth here assumes a more reddish appearance, and con-
tinues of this colour to the mountain. Th stone ter-
minates at the base of the mountain. As you aise the
mountain, Slate begins to appear resting upon the sand stone
pep ics varying in its strata from nearly horizontal to an angle
ft contains too much _argil to be useful in building,
ata re exposure to the air is easily broken. The region
* [learned the facts relative to this spring from a Gentleman who had
often. visited it. The waters of the stream were so high as to prevent my
bg én4-<t)
my o the Kaatskill Mountains.
16 Account of the Kaatskill Mountains.
< Slate continues one third of the ascent, when Sand Stone
ain appears, resting upon it. The colour of these rocks
is a dark varying toa hght brojvn. They are darker and
much more compact than those near the base. On the
peaks of these mountains, are ga specimens of Conglom-
. erate or pudding stone. Jobserved a rock of this kind
(on the peak north of Round Top.) of half a mile in length,
and from eight to ten feet in height, forming an immense
band to the mountain. The pebbles imbedded were from
the size of a bullet, to that of a six pound shot. There
are no Limestone rocks on these mountains. The in vabi-
tants have to bring all their lime from below. I saw a speci-
men of carbonate of Lime, similar to that near the village, and
partially filled with eae ase several miles west of the
conglomerate rock. As it was lying loose in the road, and
as the rocks around it were pees quartz or sand stone, I
presume it must have been carried up the mountain by some
of the inhabitants.
he scenery of this mountain is probably not surpassed
by any in the United States. The narrow glen, the deep
ravine, the lofty precipice and the glittering cascade, com-
bining the sublime and beautiful, excite the highest interest
in the mind of the spectator.
There are two roads leading up the mountain, one through :
the Kaaterskill clove, the other is cut in a serpentine direction
up the side of the mountain. The most interesting ascent —
is through the clove or cleft in the mountain, which ee me
to have been formed ‘by some great convulsion of nature.
Kaaterskill Clove.
“This ¢ Clove is formed so as to present a descending ra-
_ vine, for five miles in length, in which the Kaaterskill pursues
its way from near the top of one of the peaks to the base of
the mountain.
The road runs on the ‘idés of these mountains, following
for several miles the direction of the stream, above which it
is elevated from twenty to several hundred feet. After run-
ning on the north side of the Kaaterskill for about a mile, it
crosses it and rises two hundred feet above the stream.—
Standing at this place, as the spectator casts his eye beneath
him, he beholds the water forcing its way over a bed ©
te
pase after Ee
erat ah frat
dark forests 9 sett the back ground.
Account of the Kaatskill Mountains. 7
pers or obstructed in its course by some rock precipitated
m above, rushing around it with great impetuosity, now
tate a rapid or precipice with a hoarse thunder, or
stealing gently along with an uninterrupted current.
the opposite side of the stream, the rocks rise at an angle of
70° about fiwe hundred feet in height, when they lift their
heads five hundred more, presenting a precipice of salient
and reentering angles looking like the rude bastions of a’
natural fortification. ‘The road for about a mile runs on the
south side.of the stream, which it then again crosses and
continues on me: near it, until it reaches the top of the moun-
urn your eye towards the east, you behold
this ravine five wiles in length, bounded by eminences of sev-
eral thousand feet in Seon a forming a vista of mountains,
panier 200 fe emugh wh eee
and dale: their Sacer fields and
&, ee lay e
Vestern fall of the Kaaterskill,
At the termination of this ravine, a short distance from
Parmaters, is a cascade of great beauty, formed by the wa-
ters of the main branch of the Kaaterskill. This stream is
formed by the union of two branches, one rising in two
lakes about one and a half miles east of this cascade, the
other about half the distance in a northerly direction. The
best view of this fall is from below, the foliage above “—
so thick as ina great measure to obscure it. Belo
fall the banks of the stream, which are neatly three satel er
feet in height, rise almost perpendicularly from the surface
of the water. I visited it during the last Tian (1819)
3 few hours after a very heavy rain. In company with my
riend E- I descended the bank, sink, owing to the
shower, was very difficult. The rocks were either loose or
covered with moss, which, wet with the rain, prevented us
rom obtaining a firm foothold. In many instances we
were saved from a fall of many feet, by grasping some
neighbouring twig, which, if it was not pulled up by t
roots, served at least to stop us till we could ences Sm
ground. We stationed ourselves near the foot of
where the view amply a mr us for the aifteules
Vot. I.....No,
eters
18° Account of the Kaatskill Mountains.
we had encountered. The stream, which was then fifty feet
in breadth, descended in the form of a rapid for some dis-
tance above the precipice, when, reaching it, it presented a
perpendicular fall of 120 feet; then striking on a rock,
which makes ar angle of 40°, it “rises down this rock, en-
veloping it in foam. ‘he water fell in such a manner as
not to strike the precipice, but formed a plane parallel to it.
A number of shrubs rooted in the crevices of the rocks
which form the precipice, appeared through the fissures of
the stream, waving their green foliage with the wind, which
was = great, owing to the suction through these parallel
plan
- The s rocks on each side of the stream project so as par-
tially to eclipse the sides of the fall. They have fallen
from time to time, in such a manner as to form seventeeit
natural steps rising one above another. We stationed our-
selves on these steps, to enjoy the scenery around us. e-
fore us the stream fell ina bemesien sheet, exhibiting its
transparent waters, W. cl plane, it
shed down it with hea y, bearing on its surlace a
foam of silvery whitenes: =the right and left, the banks
rose over our heads in aileat grandeur, as if on the point of
detaching their projecting masses into the ravine where we
were standing ; while below us the water was visible for —
about thirty rods, descending in the form of a rapid, when
bending around the point of a projection of the mountain,
it disappeared from our view. The spray was so thick as
to make a dense cloud, on which the sun shining with great
brilliancy, and being nearly vertical, imprinted a perfect
rainbow. ‘This bow, which was not more than eight feet in
diameter, formed a circle around us slightly eliptical, near
the centre of which we stood. As we approached the fall,
the spray thickened, the splendour of the colours ee
and the shrubs, the rocks, and the water, were tinged with
its choicest hises, To complete the view, a small rivulet,
caused by the late rains, fell about two hundred feet, in the -
form of a cascade, down’ the precipice, on the southern
bank of the stream, displaying its crystal waters through the
green foliage which adorned it. We remained here enjoy-
ing the prospect for some minutes, when, drenched with
ray, we reluctantly bade it adieu, with all those emotions
which the sublimity and beauty of sucha scene would
naturally awaken.
oa me
rene ae Le ee ee ee
Account of the Kaatskill Mountains. 19
Elevation of the Kaatskill Mountains.
These mountains vary in height from 2500 to 3800 feet,
as ascertained by Capt. Partridge, who measured them by
the barometer. Round Top, which is the highest of these
peaks, can be seen much farther, and to the eye appears
much higher than Saddle Mountain at Williamstown, which
has been often measured, and found to be about 4000 feet
in height.
Fiew from the Mountains.
The view from Round Top, which rises south of the
ravine, is to Se of = chain, com-
sin ag re te extel is 5 ‘4 towar: ds the “west. i
nave never climbed thig cy “bak have often ascended that
immediately north. of it, and shall describe the prospect
from this eminence as it appears in August. Before you,
the counties of Greene, Columbia, and Dutchess, penta
towards the east, presenting to your view a variegated car-
pet, checquered with forests, groves, and orchards, and
blooming with all the luxuriance of that season. Beyond
em, the states of Massachusetts and Connecticut are
spread towards the horizon, till they finally intersect it.
Beneath are many undulations, where the vallies and hills,
glowing with cultivation, exhibit all the varieties of green
and yellow, which an approaching harvest presents to the
eye. In the middle of this area, the majestic Hudson rolls
its one tide for more than one hundred miles, orna-
with towns, cities, and villas, along its banks, while
to the breeze. At the distance of forty miles, Mount
Was ashington “swells from the vale” to the height of 2500
feet. On the south, the Highlands, at a greater distance,
lift their peaks to nearly the same elevation above the Hud-
son, which rolls between them ; while Saddle Mountain, at
Will at the distance of sixty miles, looks down in
proud arupailiecnen upon the vale beneath it. if
this, the Green Mountain range extends for fifty miles,
“Alps rising on — os fetes melt aeay. in he: horizon,
20 Account of the Kaatskell ‘Mountoins:
where the view is terminated. The diameter from north
to _— is about 150 miles, embracing the most <a
part of the state.
View in a fog.
Tn the autumn, a dense tog commonly arises during the
night, from the streams within the _ covering with its
misty waves the whole area, exce the tops of these
lofty mountains. ‘The only land vile, is Saddle Moun-.
tain and the Highlands, each sixty miles, and the Taugh-.
connoc Mountain, at near y the same distance. The fog
rises about 1500 feet in height, and is gilded by the beams
of the morning sun as it appears above the horizon. For
an hour after sunrise, the mist is quiescent, exhibiting an
almost shoreless ocean, with the tops of these peaks rising
above it, like distant islands in a calm at sea. ter the
sun has risen a few degrees above the horizon, the fog
begins to be agitated, and: to move in vast undulations
towards. the heavens, shooting its needles _ into the atmos-
or rolling its lengthening billows into a thousand
figures, presenting a glowing picture of the general deluge:
It remains agitated about an hour, when, unfolding its misty ~
mantle, the earth — appears here and there illumined
by the rays of the When the fog is dispelled by its
beams
the landseape infolds all its beauties, as if it had just
sprung: into existence at the command of the Cseaton
cade,
“One mile west of iiss peak are two lakes,. uniting with
each other by a small outlet, over which the road _ passes.
These lakes are each of them about three-fourths of a mile
in circumference, and are the source of one of the branches —
of the Kaaterskill. — are; as I have been informed, —
more
several kinds of fish. e outlet to these lakes is the
commencement of the located just mentioned, which forces =
rapid current it descends, making a beautiful fall of beiatbon
two and three hundred feet. I have often seen this cascade
Account of the Kaatskill Mountains. 21
in the summer season, when the stream is much reduced.
The best time to view it is in the spring, when the snows
are dissolving, which swelling its size and ‘increasing its
current, add much to the beauty of this fall.
Eastern fall of the Kaaterskill.
I ued this cascade immediately after viewing the west~
ern fall on the Kaaterskill, when the column of water was
swollen to eight or ten times its common size, iui shall
describe it as it then appeared. The rock over which the
water descends, projects in such a manner that the cascade
forms part of a parabolic curve. After siriking a rock be-
low, it runs down an inclined Lrg a few rods in length,
eager vot er another re _of one
VOLOUCU Wwitii git
wibeh, as it t fell, peste to the eye a brilliant emanation.
Here it was broken, and formed a continued succession of
showers. Large globules of water, of a soft, pearly lustre,
enriched with a prismatic reflection, shot off in tangents to
the curve of the nara and being drawn be the attraction
of gravitation, united a h
shining through a ree etconaplaites septa on it his
glittering rays, mupenns like a moving column of transpar-
ent snow. e spray rising to the height of several “gern
feet, was continually agitated by a strong wind, which
birth to a number of rainbows. They were Hevided one
above the other, and increased in brilliancy towards the
base of the cascade, where, as well as at the lower fall, an
Iris spread its arch of glory, tinging the rocks and foliage
with its brightest colours.
he ground below these cascades continued descending
at an angle of 45°, forming a hollow like an inverted cone,
of one th dfeet in depth. This was lined with lofty
trees, rae i verdant tops, varying from the dark sora f
to the light maple, were bending with the wind. Through
this waving forest the cascade appeared at various distances,
sparkling with the rays of the sun, and forming a fine con-
trast to the sombre rocks which surround it. From this —
cavity, at the distance of several miles, a peak rose to an’
elevation of two thousand feet, while the mountains on the ©
a
caer
22 Account of the Kaatskill Mountains.
right — sa eet their bold outlines on the sky be- |
; pet
~The we view of this scene, is a few rods from the baie
of the lower fall.. ‘These cascades are both of them’in a
direct line, and by standing in this position can be united in
one. By raising your eyes, a fall of four hundred feet ap-
pears precipitated from the precipices above, apparently
ready to overwhelm you, while the rocks above overhang
ee abyss in wild sublimity, apm you with destruc-
nak few years since, I visited this spot in company with a
sont of gentlemen, and lodged on the mountain. Sev-
charge ofa ornell-eaison "hres wom fo ee
the roar of the cascade.
Column of Ice.
The appearance of the mpper cascade in the middle of
he rock over which the stream —
descends, projects in such a manner, that the icicles which —
form in that season, meet with no interruption in their de-
scent towards the base of the fall. The water which strikes _
the rocks below, begins to congeal and rise (between the —
Winter, is very interesting.
column of water and the rock,) towards the icicles above.
These project towards the base, increasing in magnitude |
from day to day, while the column from below is greatly
distinet er etichacons it spent away, leaving no 9 sound but
enlarged by the water and the aes which immediately 4
of ice, resembling a rude cone, of between two and three
hundred feet, is thus formed, through the centre of which
the stream pours its current, dwindled, by the congelation
of its waters, to one-tenth its common size. n illu-
‘mined by the rays of the sun, it presents a omnipinile
-congealing, in a short time surrounds the stream. A column — ;
sec ta.
- .
ee ae
Account of the Kaatskill Mountains. 23
column glowing _ dinate reflecting and refracting its
rays in such a manner as to present all the colours of the
prism. it remains some weeks, a striking example of the
power of hoary frost, when, partly dissolved by the ‘genial
warmth of spring, it falls wig he its thousand fragments
on the rocks ener
Stony Clove.
About six miles west of this fall is a gap in the mountain,
d the Stony Clove. This cleft is formed by two moun-
tains meeting at their base, and rising so as to form a very
acute angle. The passage through it is about one and a
half miles in length ; the mountains on each side rising in
rugged grandeur, to seven hundred feet. They h ave de-
tached their hu e masses into this angle, so as to fill it to the
ight of many feet. At the termination of this cavity the
mountains recede from each other, forming a plane which
is filled with water by the melting of the snow, and by the
numerous springs which rising in these peaks, pour their
waters into it. The Lake which is thus formed is of con-
siderable depth, and about half as large as those before men-
tioned. On the surface of this lake, a grass is growing with
a great number of strong roots, which imtersect each other.
rhey are so twisted as to bear the weight of a man.
undulation around you, which motion oe continued for a
few minutes, will cause an extent of more than an acre to ©
move, like the waves of the sea. Our guide informed us
that he visited this lake a few. months before with a compan-
ion, who, in making this undulation, jumped so high that when
he struck the grass, the roots below broke, and jet him
partly through into the water. He saved himself by none
ing his arms. He was rescued by his companion from.
situation, rendered peculiarly dangerous by the esastoute
under the water, of a quick mud of great depth, which Yieldag
toa slight pressure. This anecdote together with the di
culty of reaching the grass, induced us to depart without
trying the experiment. This gap in some seasons of the
year, is much frequented by wolves and bears, wick find
24 Account of the Kaatskill Mountains.
‘it a safe retreat in consequence of the difficulties of the pas-
‘sage. They have their dens in the caverns formed by the
rocks which have been precipitated from the precipices.
Mink Pot.
On the east branch of the Schoharrie river which rises in
these mountains, is arock with a large hole in it. This cav-
ity is shaped like a pot, much larger a few inches below than
atthe rim. It is near the surface of the water, and is over-
flowed by it during a freshet. I did not visit it during the
few days I passed on the mountain, and shall therefore de-
scribe it as I heard it from one who formerly resided on
one of the peaks of this chain. It is called by the hunters,
“the Mink Pot” from the following circumstance. In the
spring the river is so much swollen by the rains, as to fill
this cavity with water. The fish of the stream go into this
cavity owing to the great depth of water, and when ihe
stream subsides, those of them that happen to be in it are
- confined until the next freshet. The Minks as soon as the
waters have subsided, in order to indulge their appetites,
leave their abode among the rocks and come to this pot.
As soon as they have arrived, they jump in to prey upon the
fish. If they remain after the waters have fallen a few
inches below the rim, they are as effectually imprisoned as
their prey. The hunters often visit this place to take the
minks. This is done by striking them with a small club, as — +
they come up to the surface of the water to breathe. Seve-
ral of these animals have, in the course of a few minutes,
_ been killed in this manner.
Trees.
These mountains are covered with trees, which are of
different kinds at the base from those on the top of the
mountain. As you leave the Hudson, and proceed towards
this chain of mountains, the trees which grow spontaneously
are principally the black and white oak ; the former used
for timber, the latter for its bark. Hickory or walnut, ches-
nut, butternut and several kinds of pine, are found inter-
spersed among the oaks. These seem indigenous to the
soil, but do not grow as abundantly as the oak. Qn the hills
Account of the Kaatskill Mountains. 25
bordering = river, and for some distance back are many
cedars of a small size, the soil being usually so thin, as to
toch: their Tsing deep root. Elms, iron-wood, and white
irch, and in the swamps a wood called swamp ash, are
thinly scattered among the trees before mentioned. Map! le,
beech and hemlock, do not often grow below the ica
but as soon as you ascend, these trees make their appear-
ance. The two first on the sides of the mountain are more
abundant, but as soon as you cross the ridge in the serpen-
tine path which leads to the lakes, the evergreens are very
numerous. The hemlocks here, and still 3 more on those
peaks farther west, are very large, and rise to a great alti-
tude. The spruce and the white pine, are visible in a
thicket soon after crossing the ridge just eed Pepe
the lakes, and for seve ral miles west of them, a e which
| “Phis wee is titel admired for
and often d to adorn the grounds 0 of the opulent. ‘I
have never Chuaived any which had the rich silvery lustre,
or grew to the same Senet ga ieee. those near these bedies |
rise to a great witty Most of the vallies which lie be-
tween the ridges of these mountains, are covered with hem-
lock, with birch, beech and cherry trees es among
them. For some distance up the sides of the ridges and
peaks, the hemlock continues, but near the top the hard
woods are the most nee Along the currents of water
which are very abundant on these mountains, the hemlock
is Sensrally found, and if the peaks (which often rise almost
cularly from these streams) are not very elevated,
this tree usually continues to the top of the ascent. The tops
of those ridges and peaks which are very elevated, are co-
vered with moss and with many thickets of spruces, which
are often so dense as to be almost inaccessible. Some large
oaks are found near the tops of the peaks, but at this alti-
tude most of the trees are much diminished in theirsize. West
Vou. I...No. 4. 4
26 Account of the Kaatskill Mountains.
of the lakes the hickory, white oak and chesnut, which are
- abundant on the eastern side of the ridge, are seldom if ever
found.*
Shrubs.
Below the mountain and east of the lakes, the whortle-
berry grows in great abundance. West of them they are
very rarely if ever found. J ascended the peak near which
the lakes are situated, on the first of October, 1816, and
found them just beginning to be ripe. The laurel is very
frequent on the eastern as well as the western side of the
ridge. With this exception, the trees and shrubs which are
numerous on the eastern side of the mountain, are seldom i
ever found west of the ridge, nature having drawn this ridge
_as a boundary or dividing line between her productions.
Strawberries ripen here, about one month later than at
the base of the mountain. This fruit is succeeded by the
black and red raspberry in great profusion. As soon as
these disappear, the blakberry succeeds them in great
abundance. These fruits are indigenous to the soil, always
springing up after the woods have been cleared and the
trees burned. They are of a fine flavour, having as much
sacharine matter as those which grow several thousand feet
below. ‘The Juniper berry is in many parts of the moun-
ae very abundant. Deer, in the winter season, when:
nes and small shrubs are covered with snow, find this
dhl only {
Streams.
The principal streams which rise in these mountains, are
the Kaaterskill and the Schohariekill, which are formed by
numerous branches. The former, before it reaches the base
of the mountain receiving additions from eight or ten tribu-
taries, the latter from as many as twenty. These streams
rise within a few miles of each other, the Kaaterskill descen-
ding the mountain in an easterly direction and joining the
* For this description of the trees and shrubs, I am much indebted to my
friend W. W. Edwards Esq. of Hunter, New-York.
\ Aecount of the Kaatskill Mountains. 27
waters of the Hudson at the village before mentioned. The
Schohariekill after descending from this eminence, runs in
a northerly direction, and unites with the Mohawk about
fifty miles from a: pepe with the Hudson. Hence the
waters of this stream, which originate within three or four
miles of those of he Kaaterskill, run about one hundred and
fifty miles before they unite with them in the Hudson. The
water composing these streams, as well as the numerous
springs which rise in every part of these mountains, are re-
markably pure and pellucid. The sweetness and purity of
these fountains cannot escape the observation of the specta-
tor. They have the same soft lustre and transparency, that
are so strikingly displayed in the waters of Lake George ; ;
and would, if covering as large an extent, present the sam
bres emanation, w! nich the pistage 0 of that beautiful sheet
| peenias | when sailing upon ‘the Hudso , appear
to rise in the form of a ridge, “El then to Sacer with
- nearly as great a declivity. I was much struck the first time
I made the ascent, to find that instead of descending im-
mediately as I had supposed, they presented a level for
‘some miles, somewhat undulating, with here and there a
deep ravine, when a succession of peaks rose one above
another, as far as the eye could reach. Along the banks of
the Schoharie, are intervals of considerable width, when the
hills ascend at an angle of from 3° to 8° for several miles.
e low price of these lands, has induced many persons to
remove to these mountains, end this leve] has been laid out
into a town called Hunter, which at this time contains from
six to seven hundred inhabitants. ‘This land is very luxuri-
ant the first year or two after it is cleared, owing to the
vegetable mould on the surface. The intervals on the
Schoharie, sea good a Soe and if manured would be
very productive. The town which is about 2,000 feet in
height, does not exhibit tint thrift and improvement which
might be expected, as most of the inhabitants 5 oe much
of their time in converting their trees into lum This
is easily effected, as there are more than fi mill seats in :
the town, which are saben sufficiently with water, to run a
saw mill most of the year.
The peaks of these mountains are covered with snow
about one month longer than the lowlands ce acamaaed be-
28 Account of the Kaatskill Mountains.
th. The summer is usually a little shorter, and vegeta-
ton several weeks later ;. but when spring commences, it is
more rapid than near the Hudson. ‘The winters are so se-
vere, and the frost so late, that peaches and_ several other
fruits which grow luxuriantly near their base, will not ar-
rive at perfection at the height of 2,000 feet. The fruits
which grow here, as well as the vegetables and grain, are
from three to four weeks later, in coming to perfection, than
near the village.
The atmosphere o of this mountain is very salubrious, as
a current is blowing through some of the ravines, or from
some of the peaks, ‘during most of the year. This ventila-
tion during the months of July and August, renders these
mountains a fine retreat from the intense heat which is fre-
quently experienced at their base. ‘This salubrity is so
great, notwithstanding the intense cold experienced during
the winter season, that between January Ist, and the 28th of
November, there had been but three deaths i in a mpapianoe
of one hundred families.
Wild Bega
These mountains abound with many wild beasts, some of
which during the winter season, when they find it difficult to
procure food, are dangerous. Bears* are often met with
in the wild passes and cloves of the mountains. These an-
imals are heated down by the inhabitants of the town, and.
only when exasperated, or destitute of food, will they ven-
ture to attack a man. ota are seldom seen at ae
_ time, though a few years since, they were numerous.
are very ferocious, and are not dispatched without great aii
culty, ' The inhabitants relate to the stranger who visits this
mountain, such heroic achievements in Panther hunting,
as, if true, ought to entitle the victor to such a niche in the.
temple of fame, as General Putnam acquired by his contest
with the wolf. Deer are found here in great numbers, and
are hunted at certain seasons of the year, but they are less
numerous than formerly. To prevent their extermination
s state, the Legislature have enacted a law, making it
a penal to kill them during the summer months.
* The guide who accompanied us to Stony Clove, has, since that time,
as Ihave been informed, awe in atrap placed at the entrance ort this
clove, three bears and a wild ¢
ee
Account of the Kaatskill Mountains. 39
a few years since were very abundant, destroying
the Sroep of the inhabitants. They are nig gine rapidly,
as there is a reward of eighty dollars paid by the state and
county for every one killed. Foxes are found here in great
numbers, and often beisitse with success. Wild cats are
not unfrequent, and are often very furious. In a few in-
stances the Hedge Hog has been caught, armed with quills
of from three to five inches in length. Minks and the mar-
tin are found in some parts of the mountain in considerable
numbers. ‘These are the principal beasts that are of any
size. Small animals which usually frequent our woods, are
found here in abundance
The length of this chen from north to south, is twenty
miles, when it turns towards the west, and ‘Pxsonds in that
direction still penemer snot Aare pea sore ig been
is usually found a mete ravine, mes which some stream
fed by the numerous springs in this elevated region, pours
its pellucid waters, exhibiting its brilliant surface through
the gloomy umbrage which surrounds it; or occasionally
appearing to view, it gives life and motion to the wild sub-
limity which is so strikingly visible in these moun
The scenery which I have described, may be rage
as a fair representation of those parts of this chain,
the foot of man never wandered, and where no iy ever
rested, excepting His who “ hung the earth upon nothing,”
and adorned it from the stores of his magnificence. The
scenery on the Plaaterkill, and that through the clove bear-
ing the same name, I have been informed is not inferior in
chxine to that I have described. Many ei of this
precipi, aid the awful chasm which so > strongly jak the
su
The Botanist would find a rich repast in exploring these
mountains, as they abound in medicinal plants and in wild
flowers. With the hope that some individual conversant
with this science, will ere long explore these Alpine peaks, I
will conclude the account of these mountains, aithacy ee
ened much, heaped my alin intention.
30 On the Pratriey end Burrens of the West.
Arr. ll. On the Prairies and Barrens of the West 3 by
M Bourne. |
TO THE EDITOR OF THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE, &c.
Cuituicotur, (Ohio,) July 30, 1819.
Sir,
Havine seen in the second number of the American
Journal of Science, an essay on the Prairies and Barrens of
the West, by Caleb Atwater Esq. wherein he attempts to
prove that the Prairies and Barrens were tes formed by
the agency of water; and in the fourth number of the sam
Journal some remarks on the origin of Prairies by Mr. R.
A. Wells, by which he attempts to prove that the Prairies
and Barrens were wholly formed by the agency of fire; I
was induced with a view of conciliating these contrary opin-
ions, to make a situation. Vari eties,
and the probable | causes of the formation of natural mead-
ows.
1. The salt meadows or marshes, ‘which. skirt the ide
waters of the Atlantic Ocean, particularly in the eastern part
of Massachusetts, have evidently been formed by the agency
of water.—Because they are all nearly level, sloping a very
little towards the water, from which their suttanee have but
little elevation, wherever they are foun
hey are covered with a peculiar kind of grass, which is
from six to twelve inches high, of a reddish colour and grows
very thick; the roots of which, form a very compact turf
or sward, and it requires a sharp instrument and considera-
ble force to-cut it They are covered by the salt water a
few inches deep several Gate in a year by the spring tides,
and this appears to be necessary to their existence, or pe-
culiar character: for if ae water is kept from them by
dykes, the upland grasses take root, the turf moulders away,
or loses its tenacity, and in a few years their appearance is
completely changed.
s the surface of these meadows lies a little above com-
pe high-water mark, there is generally a slope of about —
us
six feet in two or three rods, to low-water mark; and
On the Prairies ‘and Barrens of the W. est. 3)
slope is covered with a coarse tall grass called andes, which
requires a partial inundation every tide, or twice in twenty-
four hours to bring it to maturity.
2. Adjoining the salt meadows, on the same level, and at
the farthest extent which the salt water flows at spring tides,
fresh meadows commence, by an almost imperceptible line
of distinction; and they generally extend to the upland, but
“sometimes there is wet ground covered with bushes or a
swamp between thém and the upland.—These meadows are
wet and soft, and few will bear a waggon.—They are some-
times found several miles from any salt meadows or salt
water, and generally at the heads of Tivers, where the face
of the e country is level. The general appearance of all these
meadows is the same: being covered with wild grass of
different. kinds from twelve to thirty-six inches high, accor-
ding to the quantity of wa ter in the soil of the m eadow ; and
the more water there is, the er and talles the grass will
be, until flags and riches take its place
~"Phese meadows are much lower than the ‘upland, and
were evidently formed by the agency of water; which has
deposited an alluvial soil, composed of the firmer particles
from the upland, and decayed vegetable substances.
f they are drained by a large ditch round them at the
foot of the upland and one through the lowest part of them,
so that the water from the upland may soon run off; then
the same meadows become hard, will produce cultivated
grass, and even trees; and will in a few years lose all their
former features except their comparatively low and level
sien:
3. The Prairies of the Western country seem to me to
exhibit the same general appearance as the fresh meadows
east of the Alleghany mountains, and evidently were formed
in the same manner.
The prairies are generally found in the level parts of the
country, on the banks of small rivers and creeks, and fre-
quently extend to their sources. They are level, generally
wet and soft, and are covered with a tall wild grass.—They
are much lower than the upland; and when well drained -
ditching, they will produce cultivated grasses, grain,
trees; and exhibit every appearance of level upland, sae
their comparative depression and greeter fertility —The prai-
ries of the west are much richer and more pee than
32 On the Prairies and. Barrens of the West.
the fresh meadows of the east; because the upland near
them is richer, consequently the alluvion of the prairies will
be deeper and finer ; and the ae ae is warmer, and more
favourable to spontaneous producti
It is not impossible for prairies to eee formed on the sides
of mountains near their tops, like the glades on the Allegha-
ny mountain ; because there may be shallow hollows on the
sides of mountains, lying nearly parallel to them, and so
formed as to contain so much water from rain and the springs
above them, that trees will not grow in them; and in pro-
cess of time a quantity of alluvial soil from the higher parts
of the mountain and from leaves and other vegetable sub-
stances will be accumulated in them, so as to reach the sur-
ace of the water, then particular kinds of grass will grow,
and the hollow will exhibit every appearance of a natural
meadow.
4, The Barrens, so called from their sterile appearance,
are found on the high plains in the west parts of Ohio and
sae mer in Indiana, Illinois and eos ir he? a ave
_ featur. race ae ries, essentially dif-
ferent in many respects. _ SE ee eee ee Oo ee
y occupy the ‘ehiost pint of the coniiey-aind are
géiierally level ; some of them are uneven, but I have seen
none hilly.—They are generally poorer than the timbered
land in their vicinity, but some spots in them may be richer.
They are spotted with innumerable groves or clusters of
stinted oak and hickory trees, of about half the size which
the same kind are on the timbered lan
‘The soil is not a recent alluvion like the prairies ; and if
it is not primitive, it is at least as old as any other parts of
the great western valley. 1 think it must be evident to
every one who will view the barrens atientively, that their
present appearance was caused by fires, which have con-
sumed the trees and the acorns from which they grow: be-
cause many of the trees that are standing are partially burnt,
and almost every one that is lying down has been burnt more
or less. ‘The surface being generally level, the rains make
them wet or moist three fourths of the year, and the w
climate urges a spontaneous production of wild erass and
wae somewhat similar to that of the prairies. e fire
n the barrens are generally kindled by the Indians for ‘i
stinbenients of travelling over the smooth surface, to enable
k He
:
Bs
"
On the Prairies and Barrens of the West. 33
them to approach game without int and also to insure a
good crop of grass for the next summe
Fires sometimes eseape from the pala of travellers in
the dry season, and burn until the rain or some other cause
puts them out.
When the white aicomtp settle on the barrens or near
them, the Indians recede, fires are seldom stabinls a young
wth of trees, he and vigorous soon springs up, far
superior to the stinted growth which the frequent ioe have
scorched, and the barren assumes the appearance of a tim-
bered country.—That the barrens are frequently burned,
and that when the burnings cease, a young, vigorous erowth
of trees soon springs up, are facts which can be attested by
the most pte cate eB in this country. .
Small prairie are sometimes found in the tacts and
- the heads o ‘creeks are so ble nded with the
laces, that it is difficult to determine where
ihe one fads or the other begins.
5. Whatever may be said by Mr. Atwater or Mr. Wells,
to prove that prairies and barrens were formed by the same
agent, I shall take the liberty of differing from them both ;
orin my humble opinion, the difference in the situation,
appearance, and structure of these natural meadows indi-
cates in the nies a manner, that they were formed by dif-
ferent agen
Mr. Wells says that, “where the grass has Sad prevented
from burning by accidental causes, or the prairie has been
depastured by large herds of domestic ates it will assume
in a few years the appearance of a young forest.”
If the low wet prairies are not burned, ei pastured by
cae will they become. forests? If they are now too wet
to produce trees, when were they dry enough to produce
ay B say never; and that the same cause. that made
them prairies will keep them such : but if the water is effectu-
ally drained from them, they may produce trees.
y Mr. Atwater’s views of the Geology of the Western coun-
try, [ think are hardly tenable ; for he says that the lakes
Erie and Michigan once emptied themselves into the Ohie
and Mississippi rivers through the Scioto, Miami and Illinois
rivers 5 3 that the barrens in Ohio are elevated from fifty to
one hundred feet above the level of the Scioto river; that
e whole descent of the Scioto wey be one hundred Se:
¥ Ot AT.....Nocd
34 Say on Shells, &e.
that the Ohio river in a freshet is on a level with Lake Erie;
and that the course of the outlet of the Lakes has been
changed by the wearing down of the bed of the Niagara
river several hundred feet: but the surface of the water just
above the fall of Niagara, by the best modern measurments,
is not yet fifty feet lower than the top of the slope near
Queenstown, where it is generally supposed the wearing be-
gan.—Our citizens express a great anxiety to become the
Senda of new systems and theories to account for the
surprising phenomena which they discover in the structure
of the western country. But perhaps it would advance the
progress of science and general knowledge as much, to ex-
amine facts carefully, and report them to posterity faithfully,
without bending and twisting them to prop up imperfect
theories.
I am, ‘sg respectfully,
umbe servant,
A. BOURNE.
FOSSIL ZOOLOGY.
Art. IV. Observations on some Species of rishi
Sells, » Se: cabieliied Fossil, by Tuomas Say, of Phila-
delph
(Continued from Vol. I. p. 387.)
Genus Catenipora, Lam.
Coral lapideous, composed of parallel tubes joined to-
gether in vertical lamine ; lamine anastomosing into a net-
wor
Species.
C. Escharovdes, rice te cr (Tubipora cotenu-
laria,) American Acad. vol. 1. p. Tubipora catenulata,
Gmel, &c. (Cabinet Mai Nat. Sciences ; and Peale’s
Museum. )
SRE engi
Ce: ieee
Say on Shells, &c. 35
Fossil in different parts of the U. soe particularly at
the falls of the Ohio river and in Ulster Cou
From this last locality, Mr. C. W. Peale dbetaed some fine
specimens when digging for bones of the Mastodon.—Has
not yet occurred in the alluvial deposit of New-Jersey.
Organic Remains 2, p. 21. remarks, that minute openings
are observable in the sides of the tubes ; these are not dis-
tinct in the specimen under examination, owing perhaps to
its being entirely silecified, though an equivocal appearance
oan the belief of their having existed ; and if so, the
is very strong with the Eavosites. A species of
Turbinoli ia is implanted in the —- under examination.
Pentacrinus caput—Meduse.
Of this very remarkable and rare animal, a specimen oc-
curs in the collection of the Museum of South Carolina ; it
was brought from the Island of Gaudaloupe by Mr. L’Her-
menier. This is, I believe, the fourth recent specimen
known, of this family of extinct animals: of the two other
individuals one is in the French, and the others in British
collections.
The well known fossil animal supposed to be of this fam-
ily, so common near Huntsville and in some parts of Ken-
tucky, and which has been figured and described by Par-
kinson, cannot be properly arranged under either of the
genera. These vary in form and size. I have seen four
very distinct varieties, but it is possible they may have be-
longed to different parts of the same pedice
Although this fossil is familiar to the observation of Natur-
alists, yet it does not appear that any particular name has —
been appropriated to it, or that it has been assigned to any
dellailice place in the systems.
From its peculiar appearance, persons who have not de-
voted their attention, to the affinities of natural objects, have
regarded it as a petrified nut or Althea bud, and from the
ambiguity of its characters, or the obliteration of. its - -sculp-
ture, naturalists have hesitated to indicate its family, or kin-
dred generic group.
Parkinson is the first author who has figured and descri-
bed this animal remain. He caiees it to the genus Encri-
36 Say on Shells, Se.
nus under the name of Kentucky Asterial’ fossil, ies at the
same time and subsequently, he expresses aie doubtful-
ly; as to the propriety of that arrangement. $ specimens
were not so perfect as to exhibit the basal oneal radii,
and the sutures and ossicule were perhaps obliterated, as
they were unnoticed.
The examination of numerous specimens, in the collec-
tion of the Academy of Natural Sciences, collected by Mr.
Samuel Hazard, near Huntsville, affords me an opportunity
to corroborate the correctness of that arrangement. =
But I am induced to believe, notwithstanding the i imper-
fection of our knowledge of these animals, that the genus
as it now stands, needs the reforming hand of the system-
atist, that it is in reality a natural family, including several
perfectly distinct genera of many species, the individuals of
some of which, as their remains testify, were immensely
multiplied in the ancient world.
Actuated by this conviction, I submit to the. decision of
Naturalisis, the prope aceate cals the asterial fossil, from
the genus Enerinus, ast genus, under
Genus Peniremite.
Body subglobular or nisaonas elevated’ upon an articulated
trunk ; pelvis 3s (Pa arkinson) pentagonal, more or less abruptly
attenuated to the base ; ambulacra (Lam.) five, incomplete,
radiating from the summit and terminating each side at the —
angles of the pentagon, each with numerous transverse -stria,
a longitudinal indented line, two sutures, and numerous
transversed impressed lines, which alternate with a marginal
series of oblique pores ; interstitial spaces (included be- -
tween the ambulacra) triangular, equal, with a longitudinal
suture ; apex perforated by five rounded foramina, and an
angulated central one ; essa innominata (Park.) large, rhome,
bic. ‘Truwx branched? cylindrical, articulated, elongated ;
segments perforated, articulating surfaces with alternately:
elevated and depressed radii.
A transient view of the superior portion of this reliquium,
presents a considerable resemblance to the Echinii, by the
_ apicial foramina, and by the radiating ambulacra whieh are
somewhat similar to a pentapetalous flower. But an atten-
j ee |
“ong ee
pee ee
*
m. haere
Say on Shells, &c. 37
tive examination of its characters, exhibits its inseparable
connection with the family of Encrinites by the analogy of
its mode of support, its rect inear sutures, and the general
form of its pelvis or basal porti
To the base is generally re aN the single superior
joint of the trunk or vertebral column ; ; this joint is short,
and is longitudinally divided by three sutures, which radiate
from a central foramen; its inferior articulating surface is
orbieular, with numerous marginal radii, and the centre ex-
hibits the opening of the foramen; at its near” with the
ossa innominata itis somewhat trilobate. e Ossa innomi-
nata are of a rhomboidal form, sometimes pentagonal or
—. The ollie has the same general! form with
at of the Enerinu pe Sein al but be meee of the penta-
re acu and those p | ak ch ote jail
ribs, clavieles a il
om the superior pe of each oe sh the eres of the
base, a suture ascends, bisecting each of the interstitial spa-
ces, and is divaricated near the tip, so as to give to those
triangular spaces, arhombric termination. Each of the five
outer foramine, (of which one is invariably much the lar-
tures of those parts, and which are not visible but by dis-
section ; the central foramen is stellate.
he peculiar adaptation of these various parts to each
Pe may have permitted their independent movement, in
order that the ammal might assume some form of expan-
sion; but we are led to suppose that this motion could not
have beer very considerable, from the relative situation of
the sutures. And be — — add, that, as we = no
haps smaller ones through the pores of the Ambulacre.
This. need however, must remain for the solution of
future ob s, who may have an opportunity to examine
them in situ, Ae of comparing together their different frag-
ments which may be discovered. All the specimens which
I have seen, about —, in oS are in a sp pericoy. similar
Se state...
See Say on Shells, &e.
The several different Jeers exhibited by specimens
of the Pentremite may be thus ed—
ist. Pelvis abrubtly attenuated, ‘ditty horizontal—
Length from seven tenths to more than half an inch.
Kentucky Asterial fossil, Park. Org. Rem. vol, 2, pl. 13.
This is the most common.
2d. Body oblong ; seeded gradually attenuated ; transverse
elevated lines of the ambulacra, groove
ength from thifex “Soiitttis to one inch Pie one fourth.
3d. Body subglobalar ; ; pelvis hardly more attenuated than
Less common than the preceding one
In Peale’s Museum a large specimen of the latter is pre-
served, of which the sutures, have each a parallel impressed
line on each side; this specimen was brought from
by Mr. Reubens Peale, he was informed ‘that it was found
in the vicinity of Bath, but the fact is very equivocal.
A specimen of the ‘second variety is in the eet of
Mr. B. Say ; it was presented to him several years ago un-
der the name of petrified althea bud, and was fae i ina
garden in the borough of Reading, Pennsylvania.
Mr. Z. Collins informed me that this fossil has been
noticed and figured, by Dr. S. L. Mitchell, of New-York,
as an Echinus of the family (genus) Galerite, and also as an
asterite. See his geological observations in the New-York
edition of Cuvier’s theory as translated by Jameson p. 363,
pl. 8. This figure indicates the above first variety.
Renilla Americana,
Is very common on the coast of Georgia and E. Florida,
cast up by the waves.
Perna torta.
This large species of fossil Perna has been discovered at
Upper Marlborough, in the state of Maryland, by Mr.
Gilliams of this city. The hinge portion is very entire, but
the anterior part, is more or less broken off, as is the case
with those found in Europe and like them the substance of
the shell is in a tolerable state of preservation, not having
oat | op A al a ae al
SEEM groin
"7
Say on Shells, &c. 39
undergone much apparent change, excepting that the lamel- —
lary increments are readily separable and very friable, the
epidermis also is wanting.
It is the same species of shell as that described and figur-
ed by Collini in his Journal p. 10, pl. 6. fig. 1. under the
ee of Ostreum polyleptoginglimum and also anonymous-
, by Parkinson Organ. pl.
ante teeth of one spe gat in ve possession of the
Academy of Natural Sciences, are o
Collini says, it is often Rerfotated by sea insects ; our
specimens are also penetrated, but the cavities are formed
by an ampullaceous Pholas, which in reality may be the
same as those which that author alludes to, by the term sea
insects; it may be thus named and described.
a Pholas ovalis.
ube Saat entire and rounded at base, and gradually
attenuated towards the anterior termination. Shell subo-
vate, dehiscent ; valves with crowded, acute, elevated, trans-
verse lines, somewhat decussate with longitudinal slightly
indented ones, a more conspicuous, longitudinal, indented
line before the middle, posterior basal margin smooth ;
within equal, the posterior basal mate distinguished by a
slight undulation.
This is not, strictly speaking, a Pholas, inasmuch as it is
included ina tube; but in other respects it corresponds
very well with the species of that genus, as far as I canjudge
from incomplete specimens, not having seen the accessory
valves. It will not agree with T'eredina Lam. as its valves
are concealed by the tube ; by which character it is assim-
ilated to Fistulana, but from this genus also, it is distinguish-
able, by the form of its valves, and most probably, by being
destitute of the anterior, crustaceous, branchial appendages
or valvules, though it is proper to observe that the anterior
extremities of the tubes (which contain these parts in fistu-
lana, teredo, &c.) are deficient in my specimens of P. ovalis.
nthe somewhat compact earth which was included be-
tween two fragments of the valves of the abovementioned
Perna, were a few interesting shells, some of which are per-
fectly firm and entire, others, although to all appearance
similarly circumstanced, are extremely friable, and ever
40 Say on Shells, &c.
fatiscent. Amongst these I recognized a Crepidula, which
differs from any 1 have seen, but is too imperfect to be de-
its Soeealats. Sawa! A small lammated Cytherea, Lam.
a Fissurella allied to F. greca, but immature. A Turri-
tella, and fragments of a Balanus = considerable size, seve-
| specimens of a Nucula and of a Calypt raca. The tw
latter may be described as follows
~ Nucula obliqua, valves obliquely subsiangulay obsoletely
striate transversely, one or two of the strie more conspicu-
ous, numerous, hardly perceptible feagitadined strie 5 ante-
rior and posterior sides forming an acute angle ; ; umbo ob-
tuse ; apex acute ; teeth angulated, prominent, cavity at the
apex "of the hinge profound, rather long ; basal margin den-
ticulatocrenate.
Greatest length one fifth of an inch.—
Very much resembles Arca nucleus Lin. but is a pilates
species, and proportionally: narrower towards the apex, —
hinge teeth aay te an
Inge the cavity at t
apex of the hing eis proportional
Calyptrea eadidia, oval, on gi numerous slightly
elevated, equal equidistant coste, and crowded obtuse, con-
centric lines, which are regularly undulated by the coste 5
mag mamillated inclining. to one side ; wnner valve pate-
, dilated, attached by one side to the side of the shell,
acutely angulated at the anterior junction, and rounded at
the posterior junction, and rapidly tapering to an acute tip,
which corresponds with the inner apex of the shell.
ngth nearly one inch—
Seems to approach, in its characters to the genus Infundib-
ulum of Montf. but from the fatiscent state of the specimens,
this cannot be acurately determined. No definite spiral su-
ture is perceptible.
Genus Baculites, Lam.
Shells straight, cylindrical, xis) peat slightly conic,
divided within into transverse septa, which are sinuous
ramose on their margins and pierced with a siphunculus ;
siphunculus at one aged of the longest transverse di-
ameter.
> eer ee ae
ye Aa
6 age! a ey ee
Say on Shells, &e. 4}
Species.
1. B, ovata, elongated; transverse septa subovate, sixlo-
bed and a smaller one behind ; lobes of the superior faces of
the septa, three on each side, with a minute one betwee
each, dentated at their edges, anterior lobe, (nearest the
siphunele) small not nevais second lobe with a single pro-
jection each side and_ sinus at tip, third lobe dilated, with a
small sinus each side and more obtuse and profound one at
uP» posterior lobe hardly larger than the lateral intermedi-
ones.
gi a diameter of sie transverse section one inch and
one fifth, smeiler diameter seven tenths; length of the seg-
ment about an inc: Me
The specimen isin B eelicelan, af Mr. Reuben Haines
of this city, it was. found on the serena hills, in Mon-
mouth County, New-Jersey, it is a east of three very entire
segments, no-vestige of the shell remaining. The dimen-
sions are taken from the largest segment.
In point of form this species approaches B. vertebralis,
Lam. particularly in the curvature of the transverse section
but it is somewhat more obtuse behind ; another difference
consists in the form of the lobes, which, in that species, as
represented by Mr. Desmarest, are less symmetrical, des-
titute of the lateral processes and of ea Pema terminal
sinus; that species also is very dimin
2. B, compressa, elongated, much ihe transverse
septa oblong-oval narrowed to each end; lobes dilated,
dentated on their edges, each ais from three to five si-
nuses each side and a very profound. one at tip.
This description is taken from two fragments in the col-
lection of the Academy of Natural Sciences, which were
brought from the Missouri, one by Messrs. Lewis and Clark
and the other by Mr. Thomas Nuttall. As they exhibit the
appearance of having been violently compressed by fortu-
itous circumstances, I have not been able to obtain correct
proportional dimensions of the species. But notwithstand-
ing this distortion of form, I have much confidence in placing
it next in specific affinity to B. Knorriana, Desm. as it |
Wathen doubt been naturally a much compressed shell, ih
sheseieral eg edges not very ualike “is of that large and
on. IT.....No. 1.
42, Say on Shells, &c.
markable species; from which, however, it is sufliciently
distinct by the much developed form of the lobes
{In these specimens a considerable portion of, the shell
remains exhibiting its beautiful iridescent colours.
Mr. Nuttall gave me the following account of this species.
{t occurs in the ancient alluvium of the Missouri, or clay
formation, reposing adventitiously on the chalk stratum of
this region, and imbedded in the indurated shistose beds,
amidst other shells, and in the beds which overlie more or
less intimately the Xylanthrax or Surturbrand; they
gradually and regularly acuminated through. a Feith ‘iat
twelve or eighteen inches, being from three to four inches
broad at the base and diminishing to less than half an inch,
but a perfect apex or base has not yet been discovered.—
They are of frequent occurrence, washed out on the banks
of the river, from White river of the Missouri to the Man-
dans, but at the same time, locally and not uniformly dis-
tributed.
Genus Ostrea.
O. convexa, Oval, inequivalve ; inferior valve remarkably
convex, with a longitudinal indented line on one side, slight-
ly auriculated, or rather, angulated each side of the hinge,
2 longitudinal, transversely wrinkled depression, each side
before the hinge ; ligament cavity oval, placed beneath the
apex ; superior valve suborbicular, flat or somewhat con-
cave, radicated from the apex to. the riphe ry, aes in-
crements strongly marked; hinge each side before
transverse ruge.
Length of the convex valve nearly three inches, breadth
two and an half—depth about two inches. Cabinet of the
Acad. Nat. Sciences.
A perfect ee was found by Mr. 8. “Wetherill near
Burlington, N. I have since obtained a ferruginated one
at Mulliger Hill in the same state. Itis remarkable for the
great convexity of one of its valves and by the angles each
side of the hinge.—It closely approaches to the genus Gry-
phea ; the lower valve is even proportionably more convex
than that of Anomia gryphea, and is also furnished with the
indented line or lateral lobe as in that shell, but the umbo is
not prominent, the superior valve is as operculiform as that
I
fk
'
E
E
i
;
Say on Shells, &c. 43
of the shell abovementioned, and indeed, with the exception
of the less elevated umbo, it is almost as closely related to
Gryphea as the G. dilatata of Sowerby.
Genus Exogyra.
Shell inequivalve, inequilateral ; cicatrix one, large, deep-
ly impressed, subcentral ; inferior valve convex, attached,
umbo spiral, spire lateral, prominent, hinge with two parallel,
transverse grooves; superior valve discoidal operculiform,
umbo not prominent, revolving spirally within the margin,
hinge with a single groove on the edge.
E. costata, apex lateral, with about two volutions ; infe-
rior valve convex, costate, transversely corrugated, coste of
the disk somewhat dichotomous, asm fornicated ;
within, a ie rofound cicatrix placed rather nearer to
the inne phage with two nearly parallel, profoundly
exc puieos ex grooves, of which the inner one is shortest, and
corrugated ; superior valve flat, slightly concave, destitute of
cost, outer half exhibiting the increments, outer edge ab-
ruptly reflected from the inferior surface to the superior, but
not elevated above it; Ainge with a single groove on the
edge ; etcatriz profou un ;
Length four inches, breadth three and a half—Cabinet
of the Acad. of Nat. Sciences.—Peale’s Museum.
This interesting shell is the largest and most perfect of
its class, which has yet been found in the Ancient Alluvial
~ deposit of New-Jersey. It is not uncommon. I have seen
many specimens. ‘They vary somewhat in the coste, being
sometimes almost antiquated, sometimes nearly smooth.
The aged shells became extremely thick and ponderous.
Tt seems to differ from the genus Gryphea by having
been attached, and by the lateral situation of the spire ; the
hinge grooves also are parallel with the edge, so as to be
transverse with respect to the shell, —— some resem-
blance to those of some species of Cham
Genus Terebratula.
EB. csliontis; suborbicular, convex, ten or twelve profound,
longitudinal plice, the two middle ones of the siphunculated
valve, slightly more elevated, and the corresponding ones
44 Say on Shells, &e.
of the opposite valve, slightly more depressed ; two or three
ae conspicuous incremental lines are continued so as to
ross the projecting face of the siphunculated hinge margin,
pervect is but slightly prominent.
Cabinet of the Acad. Nat. Sciences.
This handsome species was found in the New-J ersey Al-
juvium by Mr. S. Wetherill of Burlington. The folds are
somewhat similar to those of Plicatula plicata. It resem-
bles the T’. crumena of Sowerby, in the form of its folds, and
in their extending to the beak, but the middle of the front
is very slightly elevated, with but two folds, instead of three
as in the crumena, the sides also have two or more folds, in-
stead of four or more, and the beak is not very prominent.
Belemnites.
These are often found in the New-Jersey Alluvium,
sometimes entirely changed into chrystalized blue iron earth.
(Hydrate of iron, of Judge Gorey “J
= Ammonite.
A species of this genus was Faun in the abovethétisioned
locality by Mr. Wetherill. It approaches nearest to 4. ele-
gans of Sowerby, but I have not seen a specimen sufficiently
entire to determine its species with exactness.
Dentalium.
A species has been found in 1 New-Jersey, near Mulliger
hill, by Mr. A. Jessup, which seems to approach nearest to
D. sulcatus, but as it has only about sixteen equal coste it is
more than probably a new species. .
Turritella.
A species of this genus was found by the same gentleman
with the preceding, in plenty. It approaches very closely
to the conoidea of Sowerby and is mgst probaly the same
pes
I yn seen several redintrigrate fossils from the New-
Jersey Alluvium, amongst which I may mention a Cucullaea,
Medical Botany. 45
Lam. which in general form resembles C. Glabra, length
about one inch and three fourths, breadth rather more 5 an
Arca, about one inch wide 3 a Terebratula which seems to
approach nearest to 7’. ornithocephala, Sowerby ; a
species of T'erebratula resembling the #. ovoides of the
same author, excepting that it is very slightly truncated be-
fore. I found at.Mulliger hill a Watica ‘much changed by
the ferruginous matter so abundant -in that region; length
nine tenths of an inch; and also a somewhat distorted im-.
pression of a Mytilus. Specimens of Turbinolia, Lam.
often occur in different situations.
a ——
On the Bipot f Rye, by Dr. Won ‘Tian, z Midale-
, Connectic
TO THE EDITOR OF THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE, &ce.
Dear sag
I SEND you the fllowing _— for caidas in your
Journal, not so m from my own judgment, as at the
suggestion of PRtesior Ives, to whom it was read a short
time since.
As the regular and scientific employment of the Clavus,
in medicine, originated exclusively with American Practi-
tioners, and has so nearly superseded the use of the Fivcop
and Vectis, in obstetrical coed that they are not: now
necessary in one case out of a hundred, in which they were
formerly employed ; and as niet of the information, which
has been laid before the public, respecting the article in
question, is in pete fragments, and dispersed through
various distinct works, it was thought, that a digested sum-
mary of what appears to be well founded, with respect to
one of the greatest medical discoveries of the age, could not
but be acceptable to the public.
s this sketch is not entirely medical, it seemed more
proper, for a work devoted to science in ger than to
AG Medical Botany.
one exclusively confined to Physic ; and as your Journal
includes Materia-medica within its plan, and is, in all prob-
ability, more ecmarcns known in our own and foreign
countries, than any other American periodical publication,
I take the liberty of forwarding it to you
Yours Sir, very yrespectflly, &e.
LLIAM TULLY.
SCLEROTIUM-CLAVUS. Decand.
Clavus-Secalis-Cerealis, Clavus-Secalinus, Mater-Seca-
lis, Secale-cornutum, Secale-corniculatum, Secale-luxurtans.
Horned-Rye, pease Ergot of Rye, Mother of Rye.
Ord. nat. Fungi Lin
Tucan United States.
This article is parasitic within the glumes of some of the
Gramina, most commonly of Secale-Cereale, but frequently
of Triticum-sativum, Hordeum-vulgare, and Avena-Sativa.
{t is more rarely found upon T'riticum-repens, Avena-elatior,
Alopecurus-pratensis, rundo-Cinnoides, sisi Vike
Phalaris- Canariensis, Jolene dendea Phleum-pr
tense, &c.
There have been three potas opinions, respecting the
origin and nature of the Clavu
First. It is affirmed to bea stenicd change, or modifica-
tion of the seed of the plant, upon which it is found. This
has been supported by the assertion of Teissier, that he
found seeds, one half of which were sound rye, and the
other half Clavus ; and by the assertion of others, that in
hemical composition, it approximates nearer to the seeds
of the plants upon which it is found, than to any other vege-
iable substance.
As to the statement of Teissier, it is to be remarked, that,
as no one but himself has ever witnessed such a fact, it is
highly probable, that he may have been incorrect in his ob-
servations 5 but ameniing that he was not, the phenomenon
have but little more aN aban it is conctiaaal that the
composition of the seeds of the different plants, upon which
Medical Botany. 47
" is found, is considerably various, and especially, that its
wh proximate principles, differ from every _ hitherto
kstained from the vegetable kingdom.
e second opinion is, that the Clavus is an exerescence
produced by a7 sting, and deposition of the eggs of an
insect.
As there is no ‘0 analogy i in any —— between this arti-
cle, and such excrescences as are demonstrably occasioned
that the Clavus is occasionally found to be eaten by minute
worms, and ~ small larve of insects, have been detected
in it, whic ing preserved, afterwards hatched into
moths, or buiasetines: hese occurrences are however too
rare to establish the hypothesis, to eres they seem to have
given rise, and our ee ne must be; that they
are —, accidental. —
third, (and only Fy sopt seisole ‘appears: to be well
;) is that the Clavus is a parasitic Fungus, like the
“ different sorts of blight, smut, &c.
he correctness of this nH ic to arte to be fully estab-
lished, by the following considera
First. This article has, secs all the physical charac-
ters, such as colours, form, taste, smell, &c. and even the _
casualties incident to Sclerotium, a genus of Fungi. This
genus consists of small solid fungous bodies, of a rounded,
oval, or elongated form, their interior substance hard, ocea-
sionally almost as much so, as wood, sometimes a little
fleshy, always white or inclining to white ; the outer skin
in an early stage, is smooth, in a more advanced one often
a little wrinkled, usually black, ‘sometimes of a dingy pur-
ple, seldom yellow, or white, in several species, covered by
a peculiar kind of dust, or efflorescence, of the same colour
as the surface
Second. it dies, like the several species of Sclerotium, an
pia sti place of growth. Some of these, as we are i
formed, are subterraneous, on the roots of mosses, or in id
mass of tan, in bark-beds, in close damp places sereened
from the light, as under moss heaps, or upon the surface of
the ground under the droppings of cattle, on the nerves of
altel stored under ground, upon the leaves and branches
of plants that are beginning to decay, on the fading foliage of
trees, on the rind of living fruits, on the receptacle of com-
48 _JMedical Botany.
pound flowers, on the interior of fistular twigs, on the living
leaf growing from under the epidemis, and (if the Clavus
be admitted to belong to ae genus,) from within, or near to
the germen in the Gramin , and developed in the place of
thatorgan. All this diversi of situation is similar to that
of many.other F'un
Third. It does not affect. the general health of the plant
upon which it grows, which is more remarkably the fact,
with respect to the genus Selerotiwm, than of any other para-
sites, as all the species, except S. Cyparissie, are developed,
only afier the plant has done flowering, or when it tends to
deca
i The Clavus, like other parasitic Fung?, is strictly
topical, as one or more seeds in the same ear, may be com-
pletely destroyed cod it, and the rest remain perfectly in
their natural conditio
Fifth. The ional of the growth, and the maturity of
the Clavus, like other parasitic Fungi, has no correspon-
as with that of the Bisby or any part of it, on Beh it
s found.
” Sinth, The Clavus is not “peculiar to one plant, bu
found 4 a considerable variety rt that differ very widely a
each other. This is true of other parasitic Fungi, and it
ew overthrows the opinion, that it is merely a morbid
change of the seed, as it would be incredible, nay indeed
impossible, that individual seeds, so diverse as those of Se-
cale, Alopecurus, Arundo, Festuca, Phalaris, Lolium, Phle-
um, &e. should be converted into the same article.
Seventh. Increased humidity favours the production of
Clavus, as it is said to do, of all the species of Sclerotium ;
but neither Clavus, nor any Sclerotium, can be produced,
by any degree of artificial humidity. In addition Clavus,
and all the Scleroteums, abound more in certain districts,
than in others, though eee circumstances are equally
favourable for ap produc
Eighth. lavus, Gee other Fungi of a soft substance
when young, abot seeds are commonly developed im a
position, that does not admit of complete and free expan-
sion, has the curious property of moulding itself in some
measure, to the surface of the obstacle which presents itself.
Nint he chemical composition of the Clavus, as far
as the subject has been investigated, seems to correspond
Medical Botany. 49
more nearly to that of the Fungi, than to any other class of
vegetables.
Tenth. The Clavus is said to be so like S. compactum
and S. stereorarium, that its ratens 2 can hardly be denied,
by any, who have seen them together.
Eleventh. The Abbe Fone i is said to have planted in
his garden, a number of grains of wheat and rye, and nay
the top of each to have placed several grains of Clavus
The result was a crop, in which both the wheat and rye,
were infested with Clavus. This has been considered an
evidence of the contagious nature of Clavus ; but does it
not rather prove propagation by seeds; for Decandolle in-
forms us, that, contrary to the opinions of Tode and Per-
soon, Selerotium webnee be ea ee Ella and
to which it has been approximated. Indeed the oti
of Sclerotium and Clavaria, are said to rs: so slight, “as t
occasion difficulty in characterizing ther
The Clavus, as it commonly racine is Pec e! of a
violet colour, and internally white. Its form is cylindrical,
tapering at the two extremities, sienaneaite straight, but
vex and concave side, though sometimes destitute of it on
one, or even both sides. Its dimensions are from four to
twelve lines in length, and from two to three in diameter.
{ts flavour is, at first, imperceptible, but after some time, it
is disagreeable, nauseous, and sub-acrid. If chewed for a
considerable while, it produces a sense of fullness in the
A grain of it cut transversely and viewed through a micro-
scope, is Said to present an assemblage of small and brilliant
grains like starch. The external and coloured pellicle, seen
under similar circumstances, appears as a mass of a violet
bat ~ aa ek ith small whitish spots.
a grain is inflamed, by contact with a lighted can-
dle, it beds with a white flame, distilling some drops of an oily
liquid, emitting a dense black smoke, and smelling like burnt
read.
Willdenow speaks of two varieties of Clavus, the first of
which a sie es simple, eae describes as of a pale
OL. [1...,. o.
50 Medical Botany.
violet upon the out side, and as whitish and mealy within,
without any smell or taste. The second he calls malignant,
and affirms, that it is externally dark violet, blue, or binck:
ish; and internally of a bluish grey colour, a fetid smell and
a sharp pungent taste.
He supposes the latter to be active upon the human sys-
tem, and the former ert.
From the best chemical analysis it appears that this arti-
cle ut
First ale or fawn ne eee matter, soluble in
seohol a tasting like fish-oil.
Sec
. A white oily matter, of a sweetish wste, which
is very Anke ant.
Third. A violet colouring matter, of the same shade as
orchil, but differing from it, by being insoluble in alcohol,
and easily applicable, to aluminated wool, and silk
. An acid, probably the Phosphori
F ith. * vegeto-animal matter, very ania and prone |
to puurefaction, Yighding much thiek oil, and ammonia, by
ie
Sixth. oe small ‘quantity of free ammonia, which ¢ can be
obtained at the temperature of boiling water.
This article, when taken in substance into the stomach,
in moderately large doses, occasions nausea; and even a
piss or a prea: has produced vomiting, but without
there is a schon to action, in t organ, | and re-
storing the catamenial secretion, when obstructed. It must
therefor in the Materia-medica as a Partus-
accelerator, and as an EEmmenagogue
The cases in which it is indicated asa Partus-accelerator,
are—
First. In the early stages of pregnancy, when abortion
has become inevitable, uterine contractions are feeble, and
hemorrhage considerable, so that it has become important
to abridge the sufferings, and lessen the danger of the pa-
tient.
' Second. In cases of i alarming hemorrhage, near the close
of the period of utero-gestation, not occasioned by attach-
rte A ceeaeneccerneette
~
i
aE:
¥,
Medical Botany. 51
ment of the placenta over the os-uter?, and not accompanied
by efficient contractions.
Third. In puerperal convulsions, in which action is mor-
bid, and misplaced, and speedy delivery becomes neces-
sary.
Fourth. In lingering labour, connected either with the
death of the child, or owing to a cessation of contraction,
the os-uteri being sufficiently dilated, and the other soft parts
properly relaxed. ‘This is its most important use, as it is
here capable, in all cases, of superseding the employment
both of the forceps and vectis, instruments, which, previous
to the discovery of the powers of the Clavus, were not un-
frequently necessary, but could seldom be used without
ra injury, either to the mother, or child, and usually to
; : |
othe = 5 ee Se
Fifth. In retention of the placenta, from deficency of con-
traction, it is in general, if not always, capable of superse-
ding the introduction of the hand.
Sixth. In subjects liable to hemorrhage after delivery,
from laxity and deficiency of contraction, this effect may be
entirely prevented by the exhibition of a suitable quantity
of the Clavus fifteen or thirty minutes previous to the time,
when the labour would otherwise have terminated sponta-
neously.
Seventh. It may even be employed with advantage after
delivery, to restrain the hoemorrhage, and moderate the ex-
he lochial discharge, which results from laxity, and de-
ility. -
In too early a stage of labour, before the os-uteri is suffi-
ciently dilated, and when there is much rigidity of the other
soft parts, or when there is any malconformation, or a pre-
sentation that requires changing, the Clavus seldom pro-
duces any benefit, but in general, greatly increases the suf-
ferings of the mother, retards her ultimate recovery, and
most commonly causes the death of the chi
_ As a Partus-accelerator, the substance in powder, or bet-
ter the infusion or decoction, in the quantity of ten grains,
to an ounce of water, may be exhibited every ten minutes,
ull its effect is produced.
t sometimes, though very rarely, proves inoperative, but
not oftener than twenty-five grains of jalap fail of purging,
or eight grains of Tartrate of Antimony fail of vomiting.
52 , Medical Botany.
Indeed, so certain is this article in its operation, that all or-
dinary cathartics and emetics, in their customary doses,
much more frequently prove inert. Its effect is generally
tractions produced by it, are commonly powerful, and inces-
sant, and almost convulsive, an an experienced prac-
titioner, may always be distinguished from such as are spon-
taneous. In doses of two or three grains, combined with a
little opium, it is said, that it may be so managed, as to pro-
duce the interrupted pains of regular labour. If given fier
: full dose of opium, it is liable to fail of producing any ef-
ect.
As an Emmenagogue, the Clavus is not equally effica-
cious, convenient, and unfailing. In reference to this ef-
fect, the substance 4 in powder, the infusion, decoction, and
tincture have all been recommended, but here likewise, in-
fusion and decoction seem to claim the preference. The
quantity of the Clavus necessary to be taken daily, in Ame-
norrhea, varies from two drachms, to an ounce 3 land this
often requires to be continued for some ae In
cases, it commonly produces some unpleasant effects upon
the stomach, and occasionally head-ache, increased heat of
the eed and pain in the hypogastric regio
whole, I am inclined to Scan it ‘vill not be ikely
to come st repute, for this pur
‘e are informed, that some biginitods of hysteria have
very suddenly yielded to this article, but are ignorant of the
circumstances of the cases, without a knowledge of which,
no precept can be laid down.
As relates to the medical history of this article, it appears,
both from printed authority and traditional information, that
some general and indefinite knowledge of the medicinal pro-
perties of the Clavus, has been, from time immemorial, in
the possession of a few old women, and empyrical practi-
tioners, in England, some other parts of Europe, and even
in the United States
In France, as early as 1774, it seems to have been used
with considerable judgment, by some female practitioners,
and oe as ae as 1747, by a regular Dutch Accou-
cheur.. The subject however, was in all probability, man-
aged with the customary mystery of the times, and w
Medical Botany. 53
brought to light, at a subsequent period, it seems to- Shes
been viewed, as a remnant of the credulity of an ignorant,
and superstitiou us age. As it was reserved however, for the
illustrious Jenner to investigate and promulgate to the world,
the ome discovery of Vaccination, so it has fallen to
the lot of our countryman Dr. Stearns, first to search into,
and eauseien by experiment : to reduce to scientific ti
and make public the powers of the Clavus, and at the
time, to prescribe the true restrictions, and limitations, w “hich
should always regulate its use ;—a discovery, which, next
to Vaccination, may be ae as the greatest of the
present age, in the science of Medi
With respect to the poisonous siahiad of the Clavus, and
its power of pees, malignant and epidemic diseases,
there seems to The
ae
“3
FS
BBs
2.8
EB
must be sala in such a quantity of flour, and so changed
by the fermentation, as to become completely i tek
Beside, i must have been eaten, from time immemorial,
as well since, as before tl:e occurrence of the diseases, that
have been attributed to it, whilst their appearance has been
so rare, as to cause them to be looked upon as phenomena.
n this country, the Clavus seems always to have been
abundant, and till of late, there has been no suspicion of its
im deleterious qualities to bread. Even here, the
diseases which have been ascribed to it, have occurred as
frequently, prevailed as extensively, and proved as mortal,
im parts, in which nothing but Maize and Wheat are used
for bread.
The fact that epidemic causes have never been satisfac-
torily epestenied, has left an unbounded field for conjec-
ture esis ; and, unfortunately for the credit of
the ae understanding, the one in question, is not the
most absurd.
eee m Brigdes Journal of “Seieute
and the > sn a auguelin in Do.—Dyckman’s Duncan’s
carat od
54 Strong’s Problems.
MATHEMATICS.
RE Ae
Arr. V. Mathematical Problems, with Geometrical Con-
structions and Demonstrations, by Professor Turopore
Srrone, of Hamilton College. ,
[For the figures, see the annexed Plate.]
Prosiem [.
Tt HROUGH three given pane which are not in the
same straight line, to describe a
Let A, B, C (Fig. 1. pl. 1 ) ris the three given points
which are not in the same straight line, it is required to de-
scribe a circle the circumference of which shall pass through
these points. : sae * eg ae eee
onstruction. Join AB, BC, and AC. Then ABC is a
triangle. Describe a circle about this triangle. (Sim. Euel.
IV. 5.) Then will the circumference of this circle pass
through the points A, Q. E. 1.
Prosiem II.
Let there be three straight lines, w to arenot all parallel
to each other, and do not cut each other in the same point,
given, it is required to describe a idecls. such that it shall
touch each of them
Let AC, BC, BH, (Fig. 2.) be three given straight lines
which are not all parallel to each other and which do not
cut each other in the same point, it is required to depoaibe
a circle such ay it shall touch each of them.
t , BC, produced if necessary, meet in C;
_and also CB ea BH in B. Bisect the angle ACB by the
straight line CD, and also the angle CBH by the straight
line BD. Let them meet in D. From the point D draw
DG, at right angles to BC, DF at right angles to AC, and
DE at right angles to BH. From D as a centre, with ra-
dius DF, describe the circle EFG, which shall be the circle
required.
a i ee ads
a en
Strong’s Problems. 55
Demonstration. Because the angle FCD = angle GCD
and the angle DF = angle DGC, and DC is common to
both the triangles DFC, DGC, the straight line DF
straight line DG. In like manner it may be shewn that
== DE. Therefore a circle described from D as cen-
tre with DF as radius will pass through the three points E,
, G. And it is manifest also that it ‘touches the lines H,
AC, CB, in those points, since the radii DE, DG, DF are
severally Seeaantiocier to the lines BH, BC, CA. -Q. Eu.
Prosiem IIL.
Given two points and a straight line in position, the
‘points not being on opposite sides of the line ; it is require
to describe a circle the circumference of which shall pass
ee the two given = ote and touch the given line.
Case I. When one of the given points is in the given
steuiene ht lin
~ Const. Ea AB i e 3.) be the given straight line, C
the given point in AB, and D the other given point.—Join
DC, and through C draw CE at right angles to AB. At
the point D in the line DC, make the angle CDE = the an-
gle DCE. Then the side DE = side CE. Therefore a cir-
cle described from E as a centre with radius DE, will pass
through C, and D. And it will likewise touch the line
AB, this line being perpendicular to the radiu
Case H. When the straight line joining tis two given
points is parallel to the given straight line.
Const. Let AB, (Fig. 4.) be the given straight line, and
> D, the two given points. Join d bisect CD in
F. From F draw F E, at right anglestoCD. Let FE ex-
tended cut AB in E. Through C, D, E describe a circle,
Which shall be the circle taste
emonst. For Join ED, and EC. Because the angles
EFC, EFD are equal, and chs FD and FE is common,
the angle’ FCE = angle FDE. But the angle FCE=
alternate angle CEA. Therefore CEA = CDE. Therefore
AB touches the circle CDE in the point E. (Eucl. If. 22.)
Case If]. When the straight line joining the two given
points is oblique to the given line.
Const. Join CD (Fig. 5.) and let CD produced meet AB in
B. Take SBE Ss == a mean proportional between BD and BC.
,
56 Strong’s Problems.
Through the points C, D, E, describe the circle CDE,
which hall be the vircle required.
Demons. For since BE = mean proportional between .
- BD and BC, BE2e= BD. BC. Now since the circle passes
through the points, D, E,and BD. BC = BE’, o straight
line BA touches the circle. (Euc. TIL. 37.) Q. E
Cor. to Case I. Ifthe pomt D should fall in EC pro-
duced, bisect the distance between the two points, and the
proof is as before.
Prosiem IV.
Let two straight lines and a point which does not lie at
the intersection of those lines, be given in position, it is re-
quired to describe a circle through the given point to touch
the two given straight lines
Case 1. When the given point lies in one of the given
straight lines.
Construction. Let AB, AC
be the given straight lines, andD
the hee point in one of the lines.
Let the lines produced if necessa-
ry meet at A. Bisect the angle
BAC by the straight line AE.
Through D draw DE at right an-
gles to AC, cutting the bisecting
line-in E. From E as centre w ith
ED as radius describe a circle :
which shall be the circle required.
—For draw EF at right angles to AB.
Demons. ‘The angle FAE = angle DAE and angle
AFE = angle ADE and the side AE is can to both
the triangles AFE, ADE. Therefore EF = ED. There-
fore a circle described from E as centre with Se as radius,
will pass through F. Now EF and ED are at right angles |
to AB and AC. Therefore the circle touches AB and AC
in Fand D. And (by Const.) it passes through D.—Q.
f >
Case HI. When the point is upon neither of the lines.
Const. Let AB, AC (fig. 6.) be the given straight lines,
on = the given point. Let AB, AC , produced if necessary,
meet in A. Bisect the angle BAC by the straight line AE.
pare in
Strong’s Problems. 57
‘Through D draw DE at right angles to AE. Produce DE
until EF = ED. Through the points D, F, deseribe a cir-
cle a touch the line AB.* And this shall ba the circle re-
quin
Fsinupe. For suppose the circle EGH to touch the line
AB in the point G. Through G draw GL at right angles to
AB, and cutting the line AE in L. Because GL is drawn
at right angles to the tangent AB, it passes through the cen-
tre, and since AE bisects the chord FD at right angles it
likewise passes through the centre. L must therefore be the
centre. From L draw LH perpendicular to AE. Now,
since angle LAG = angle LAH, and the angle AGL = an-
gle garde and AL is common to both triangles, 1 LG= ee
Prosuem V.
It is required through two given points to describe a cir-
cle which shall touch a circle, given in position and magni-
tude.
Case I. When one of the given points is in the circum-
ference of the given circle and the other either within or
without the given circle.
-, Const. Let AB (Fig. 7.) be the given circle, B the point
in the circumference, and C, (or C-) the point without (or
within) the given circle. wot is required to describe a circle
such, that it shall pass through the points B, C (B, C*) and
touch the given circle. Join BC. Bise ct BC in D. Take
F’, the centre of the circle AB. Join BF. "Through D, draw
DE at right angles to CB, meeting BF produced i in E. Join
CE, and with E as centre, and radius BE, describe the circle
CB; ; then will CB be the circle required.
Demonstration. Because CD = DB, and the angle CDE
=angle BDE, and DE is common to both the triangles CDE,
BDE, CE=BE. Therefore the circle described from E as
centre, with radius BE passes through C. It is also manifest
* Problem H.
Wh Rb cecist Wo: 2. g
58 Strong’s Problems.
that it touches the given circle. For draw LX touching the
given circle in the point B. Then FB will be at right axles
to LX. Now LX being at right angles to BE at the point
8, which is in the circumference of the circle CBM, must
touch this circle at that point. Therefore since both circles,
AB, CBM, touch LX at the same point B, they must touch
each other at that point.
In like manner by using the letters C-, D-, E, Se. for
C, D, E; &c., the demonstration will apply to the case,
where the point is within the circle.
ase II. When the two points are either without-or with-
in the givén circle at oie distances from the centre.
the two points without the circle. It is required to describe a
circle through those points which shall touch the given cir-
cle—Take any point X within (or X- without) the given
circle which is not in the same straight line with CE. And
through the points C, E, X, describe a srt —(Prob. I.)
_ Let this circle cut the: given Nacho 3 in the points B, D. Join
BD; and through the points C, E, draw CE mae BD ex-
tended in F. Through F, draw FA, — ABD i in A.
¢ ERE: T%:
Demonst. Because the straight lng FD cuts the mains
ABD, and the straight line FA touches it, FD. FB=FA
But FD. FB=FC. FE. Therefore FC. FE= FA?. Lei
therefore, a circle be described through (Prob. IL.) C, E, A.
—Now this circle meeting FA in A, and FC. FE equaling
FA?; FA must be a tangent to CAE, at the point A. Since,
ther efore, both the circles, ABD. , CAE, touch the straight
line FA at the point A, they must touch each other at that
oint.
In like manner, by using, C*, Ev, &c. for C, E, &c. this
demonstration is applicable to the case where the points aré
within the given circle
Case Ill. When the two points are either within or
without the given circle at equal distances from the centre.
onstruction. Let AB (Mig. 9.) be the given circle, and
C, D, the given points without (or C-, D-, within) the given
circle at equal distances from the centre. Join CD, CH,
HD. Bisect CD in E, and join EH. — Let EH cut the cir-
cumference of the given circle in A. Through the points A,
Strong’s Problems. 59
C, D, describe the circle ACD, which shall be the circle
required. Through A draw FG perpendicular to EH.
Demons. Because CE= ED, HC = HD and HE is
common to the triangles HED, HEC, the angles CEH,
DEH are equal, being opposite equal sides. ‘Therefore
HE is perpendicular to DC. Now because CD isa chord in
the circle CAD and is bisected at right anges by AE, AE
passes through the centre of the circle. But FG is at right
angles to KA, and EA passes through the centre of the cir-
cle CDA ; therefore FG touches the circle CDA in the
point A. "But (by Const.) FG touches the circle AB in the
point A. Therefore the circles CDA, AB, touch each other
at the point A.—
In like manner a using the letters C-, D-, &c. for C, D,
&c. the above demonstration is applicable to the case where
se aaa are within. the circle at equal distances from the
pSbhoHuc As CD, GF are both at right angles to EH
they are parallel to each other. Therefore the construction
in Case II, failing, Case ILI is necessar
Note I. When one of the points is within the circle and
the other without, the problem becomes impossible ; for
then the circle which passes through those points will cut
the given circle, which is against the Hy
ote II. All the cases of this problem (except the first)
admit of two solutions ; as is manifest from the above con-
struction.
Prosiem VI.
It is required to describe a circle to touch two given
aieaignt lines and a given circ
Case I. When the two eye straight lines are parallel
and the given circle lies between them, or cuts one or both
of them
Const. Let AB, CD (Fig. 10.) be the two given straight
lines, and MI the given circle. Draw EF parallel to AB
and distant from it, by a line = radius of the given circle.
Draw also GH Sarallek to. CD and ata like distance from CD.
It is _: to be noted that if EF fall between the given lines
GH must likewise. Through Q the centre of the given
circle cee the pores QNS touching EF, GH in N, S,
60 Strong’s Problems.
Se cel oin ON. Let ON cut ABi in L. Then with
O as centre and OL as radius, describe a circle XLP;
which shall ie the circle required. .
Demons. For ON by the nature of the tangent is_per-
pendicular to EF, and therefore to AB, which is parallel to
EF. Now since XPL passes through L, and ALO is a
right angle, XPL must touch AB in the point L. In like
manner it may be proved to touch CD in P. But it like-
wise touches the given circle. For, join QO the centres of
the two circles. Then O@ and ON being radii of the circle
QNS are Sani 5 OT “ line QO to eee the given
circle in Then (by Const.) QX =NL. Therefore
OL= Ox. Hence the eels LP passes ee X. And
if'at the point X a perpendicular were erected, it would be
a tangent to both circles at the same point 2 he circles
therefore touch each other at the point Xx. Wherefore
XLP is the circle required.
Case Il. When the two given straight mee intersect
each other, and the circle is given in any posi
Construction. Let AB, cD (Fig. 11.) be the tae en straight
- lines and SN the given circle. It is required to describe a.
circle to touch AB, CD, and the given circle. Draw EO,
%, parallel to the two given lines and respectively distant
from them by a line = radius of the given circle-—Let N
be the centre of the given circle. ‘Through N describe a
circle NZ touching the lines EO, OG in the points F, F ;
of which circle let M be the centre. Join MF. Let MF
cut AB in X. Then from M as centre with radius MX,
describe a circle. And this shall be the circle required.—
in 8.
oin MN intersecting the circle §
Demonst. For NM, MF roe sai of the same circle
are equal. But NS = XF (by Const.) therefore SM =
MX. Therefore the circle MW passes through the point
S. Now MXF being perpendicular to EO, and EO being
parallel to AB, it is likewise perpendicular to ‘AB. There=
fore AB isa tangent to ic 8 circle SXW. In like manner we
may prove that CD touches $ Now, if from the point
S a perpendicular be pom to NM, it will be a tangent to
both circles at the same point. Therefore the circles SKW,
SV wi cach other in S, whence SXW is the cirele re-
uire
‘ By ‘using NM-+WNS for MN—SN and MX+XF for
MX—XF, the above demonstration is applicable where
i, —_- lll ta eile atndiiem
!
Strong’s Problems. 61
the required circle is to circumscribe the given circle. See
ig. 12. ,
Note. In case I. where the given lines are parallel, if
ihe given circle and one of the given lines be on opposite
sides of the other line, then the Problem becomes impos-
sible. ;
Prosuirm VII.
To draw a straight line touching two circles given in mag-
nitude and position. |
ase I. When the touching line does not pass between
their centres.
Const. Let AF, BC (Fig. 13.) be the two given circles.
Join their centres. Take CE = AB—BD, if AC> BD,
and with CE radius and C (the centre of the given circle
AF) centre, describe the circle EX. From D the centre of
the other circle, draw DE touching the circle EX in E.
Join CE, and produce CE until it meet the circle AF in
the point A. At the point A draw the tangent AB and pro-
duce it to the circle BG. ‘Then shall the line AB likewise
touch the circle BG.
Demonstration. For, ED being a tangent to the circle
EX, the line CE drawn from the centre to the point of con-
tact will be at right angles to ED.—For the same reason
EC produced is at right angles to AB. Therefore ED, AB
are parallel. BD, therefore, being drawn from the centre D
perpendicular to AB ; ABDE will be a parallelogram, and
EA, BD will be equal. But EA —radius of the circle
BG. Therefore BD equaling radius of circle BG, the point
_ B falls in the circumference of BG. And AB is at right
angles to BH the radius of the circle BC in B. A
therefore be a tangent to the circle BG in the point B. But
AB is likewise a tangent to the circle AF in A, (by Const.)
therefore AB is the tangent required.
ase 11. When the touching line passes between the
centres of the two given circles.
Const. Let the two circles (Fig. 14.) be AB, DE.—
From O the centre of the circle DE, draw OF = radius
circle AB + radius circle DE, and with OF as radius describe
the circle GF. From C the centre of the circle AB draw .
CF touching FG in some point as F. Let the line joining
62 Strong’s Problems.
O, F cut the ae DEinD. From D draw DA parallel
to FC. From C draw CA parallel to OF and let it cut
DA Sidaced. in A. Then will DA be the tangent re-
uired.
= Demonstration. For because CF touches the circle FG
and from O the centre of FG, is drawn to the point of
contact, the angle OFC is a right angle. But DA is paral-
lel to FC and is therefore perpendicular to OF. Hence it
touches DE. And AC being parallel to DF is at right an-
les to
; Moreover the ap ae ACFD isa parallelogram, and there-
fore AC= DF. But DF =radius of the circle AB.—
Therefore A is in i Gronabiesey Oo . Now, the an-
gle DAC has been proved a right angle. Wherefore DA
‘ouches the circle AB in the point A. But it likewise
pb oe ee circle ED. AD is therefore the tangent re-
uire % =
ig Or: t to Case I. When the circles become ets that is,
parallel to DC the line ne joining the centre re of a tre circles.
Cor. to Case Il. When the circles becom e equal, that
is, when OD = AC, OF — 20D, therefore == 20X,
X being in the middle of the line OC.
Note. That this problem is impossible i in both Cases,
when one circle lies wholly within the other; in scar’ il,
when one circle cuts ‘the other.
Prosiem VIII.
it is required to find a point, from which any straight
lines being drawn, cutting two circles given in magnitude
and position shall cut off similar segments.
sef. When the point does not fall between the two
circles
Const.* Let BD and PE (Fig. 15. ) wi two circles.
Draw BPA touching the circles in B an Prob. VII.
Case I.) and produce this tangent, to meet TG (which } =
ihe centres of the given circles) in some pointas A. From
Both the cases of this Problem admit of avery sipigle construction,
which is independent ofthe 7th. A line joining the extremities of any two
radii phot parallel to each other, will is gba ie! line joining the centres
(produced, in Case I.) in the point required —
—_— CO _—— ————
Strong’s Problems. 63
A draw any line AC, cutting the circles in C, H, N, O. The
segments CBH, NPO are similar, and likewise the remain-
ing segments CDH,
Demonst. For draw FB, GP to the points of contact of
"OF. RG, : and LCE AK: QB : PR. pera
fore Or. RG: oR; alternately QF: BQ::
PR; by Comp. FB: QF :: PG: RG, that is, FH: Ors:
GO: GR ; (substituting for F B and PG their equals FH
and GO.) Now ve an ae Pat _ are each of them
less than a right a cs less than a semi-
circle) hemare wel VL 7 7) ie a angles FQH and pt
being eq angles FQ e similar, and th
angles FH, RGO are equal. In tke manner it may be
shown that the angles CFQ, RGN are equal. Whence the
angle CFH = angle NGO. Therefore their halves CDH,
NEO will likewise be equal. Therefore the segments CDH,
NEO are similar, and likewise the segments “CBH, NPO.
(Euc. Def. B. 3.) Wherefore A is the point required.
Case a When the point falls within the two circles.
wg. 16. Const. Let AF'N, HBK, be the two given cir-
cles, a (Prob. 7. C. 2.) the tangent BA cutting the
line DE (which join the centres of the given circles) in C.
Then will C be the point required.
Demonst. For through C, draw any line FCH, cutting
the circles in F, G, HL, L Join EA, DB, which being per-
pendicular to AB, are ‘parallel to each other. The angles
LCE, DCM being vertical are equal. For the same reason
ACT angle MCB. Therefore the triangles ACL, MCB,
as also the triangles LCE, DCM are similar. Therefore
AL:MB::LC:CM wid LE:MD::LC: MC, whence
by equality, me MB::LE:MD; slcoceeti ly. AL:MB:
LE: compos. EA or EG: LE: :DB or DI: DM.
Now the ais LGE, DIM are each of them less than a
right angle ; Sitshore (Eue. VI. 7. ) the triangles LEG,
IM are similar, and the angle LEG = angle IDM. In
like manner it may be shown that the angle FEL = == angle
MDH. Therefore the whole angle IDH == whole angle
64 | Strong’s Problems.
FEG. Wherefore their halves FNG, HKI are equal.
a res FING, IKH are similar, and likewise the seg-
s FAG, IBH. Therefore a point C is found as re-
fa
or. I. By a similar construction, similar segments may
be cut from spheres given in position and magnitude by a
plane, as is manifest from the solution “of this Problem.
Cor. I. When in Case I. the circles approach to equality,
the point A becomes infinitely distant, and the line AC be-
comes parallel to AJ, which passes through the centres of
the circles.
Cor. THI. When in Case II. the circles become equal,
the point C (as in Case II. Prob. VIL.) is equidistant from
the centres of the circles.
Cor. IV. In Case I. the points C,I, M, O, are in the
circumference of a circle. For FCI = ZGNL and ZGNR
ae TAG a: ooo the whole eet ICH = whole angle
ES
ing angles CIM. COM — eee ret. Bigles. Therefore the
; pega tore tenia s
In like manner , L, N are in the circumference of a
circle. Therefore the rectangle AM. AI = A , and
Iso AK. H. AN,
—
=—
Cor. V. Because (in Case II.) the segment yFAG is
similar to the segment IBHz, the angle {He = Fy and
the angles at C being vertical are equal; therefore the tri-
angles CF, ‘CH are similar. But the triangle CrI is sim-
ilar to the triangle CHz. For the angles Irr+ITHz =two
tight angles ; and Ire +Ire = two right angles: taking from
“both, the common angle Ira, there remains Cri = A
and the angle at C being common to the two triangles they
are similar. Hence Cy and CHv being similar and like-
wise CHa and CrI, wad Ae is similar to Cr. nie A CI:
r::Cy:CF. Therefore Cl. CF = Cr. Cy. There-
fore the points I, r, F, y are in the circumference of a circle.
In like manner it may be shewn that the points G, z, H, +
are in the circumference of a circle.
(To be continued.)
é
| ie croc amen
é
Mr. Farey’s Letter on musical Intervals, Sc. 65
HARMONICS.
* On different modes of expressing the magnitudes and rela-
tions of Musical Intervals ; with some remarks, in com-
mendation of Professor Fisuer’s Proportionally-tem-
pered Douzeave, calculated in page 195. Vol. 1.—commu-
micated to the Editor by Mr. Joun Farry, Senr. Mineral
Surveyor of Lonvon.
TO PROFESSOR SILLIMAN.
Sir,
VING perused the two first numbers of your Ameri-
can Journal of Science, I have been gratified by observing
the distinguished rank which two different subjects hold
herein; one of which has, through a long period, been to
me a favourite source of amusement, while relaxing from my
professional studies and practice, under the other of these
branches of knowledge.
The Essay on Musical Temperament by Professor Fish-
er, with which your work commences, has been to me, a
rich treat, for which I beg to tender that Gentleman my
best thanks, and to declare, that I have before met with
nothing like it in point of utility, in an attentive perusal of
nearly every thing which has been printed in the English
language, on the subject of Musical Temperament, and as
to the correct and practically useful views, which are therein
taken of the subject. It is with the hope of drawing a more
specting Prof. Fisher’s original speculations on this curio
Vou. 11::.:.Ne. 1: 9
66 Mr. Farey’s Letter on musical Intervals, &c.
extended attention to what Professor Fisher has done, that
1 am principally induced to make the present communica-
tion ; relying with full confidence, on the candour of Pro-
f and others of your Readers, who may interest
themselves in this curious oe for excusing the freedom
of the remarks I may make.
practitioners of Music, both Professional and Ama-
teur, almost universally, as also a sreat majority of the Teach-
ers and Composers of Music, and even many of the Writers
of * Treatises” (as they are here technically called) on the
theory and practice of Composition and on Tuning, are
well known to have been so very generally unacquainted
with, or so inattentive to, any of the correct methods of de-
fining, measuring and calculating the musical Intervals which
occupied their attention, as to have in no ordinary degree
excited the surprise of every one, who has compared these
many able and ingenious Individuals, with. the cultivators
of nearly every other of the branches of Science and polite
or useful Arts amongst us; into which happily. correct
netpens and. nomenclatures, and aceurate notations and
calculating, — every thing which comes within the
Eeitttion of quantity, is either eadaced and established,
or is now in rapid progress towards this desirable end.
_I was first led to make the above remarks, on the occa-
sion of the seahishmons of the Choral Fund in this Me-
tropolis, almost thirty years ago, and while I acted as its
first Secretary, Librarian, &c. which brought me into ac-
quaintance with numbers of the most eminent of the Charac-
ters alluded to; with many of whom, and the successors,
alas! of too many of them, { have continued to cultivate
this acquaintance, and as often as opportunities offered, have
conversed with them on the subjects, to which I am now
alluding : from all which, and the concurrent experience of
all such of my quainencess as unite a knowledge of
Mathematics with that of the principles of Music, | have
oe convinced, that as chief cause of the evil I am
dep! Fag Oe x arisen from the very unnatural manner, €X-
cept to al hich the ratios of the
lengths of strings NB musical ‘Intervals, wah + a view to
comparing or calculating the magnitude of such Intervals :
and it is the same, with regar rd to the number of vibrations
or pulses, made in a given time, by the sonorous body, or
Mr. Farey’s Letter on musical Intervals, &c. 67
excited in the air, for yielding different sounds ; because it
is the ratios, only, of these, that can be applied to the com-
paring or calculating of musical Intervals; involving, in
all such cases, the unnatural and laborious substitution
of the multiplication of vulgar Fra actions, in the plate of
simple addition, and the substitution of division o
Fractions, in the place of simple subtraction, of the Suter
vals under consideration : a consequence of which is, that
the smaller the Intervals are, the larger do the numbers ex-
pressing them become, and the more difficult of conception
and the more laborious, does the expressing or calculating
of them become ; and hence it can excite no wonder, that
nearly all who may not have been induced to cultivate
some acquaintance with aianenescn for its own sake, sar
as Mu , been so |
a the very outset of their attempts to understand this im-
tand fundam
oven up the pursuit; being content to remain ignorant of
that which was presented to them by the professed Writers
on the subject, in so unnatural and forbidding a form.
It is observable, that the small Intervals above alluded to,
as oecasioning the chief stumbling block, are not merely
such as curiosity only, and not utility, requires to be
brought into review, but they concern each and every one of
the Intervals which are considered, when we attempt to
speak of the Temperaments of the Musical Scale : and hence,
it has been next to impossible, that the mere Arithmetician,
who proceeded to add and subtract Intervals according to
the unnatural plan above mentioned,* could ee the
calculation, or understand the true nature, of any om
various modes in which the musical Scale — sone
ed, or even comprehend the untempered Scale itself, in so
much of its generality as the same is now actually exhibit-
ed, on the Euharmonic organs of Mr. Liston, and always
has, although almost unperceived, been practiced, by the
correct Singer, the Violinist, and a few other Practitioners
ost indefatigable pa hte the late Mr. Marmaduke Overend,
pienso in this way, and brought his labours to no usefnl conclusions, €x-
en mentioned by Authors, and of some few other new Intervals, whic
are somewhat a dee * I have fully percha in Mr. Tilloch’s Philosophical
Magazine, in Vol. 28. p. 140.
68 Mr. Farey’s Letter on musical Intervals, &c.
on InStruments which are perfect, as to their capability of
yielding any degree of sound whatever, which either theory
or the judgment of the ear might require.
Since the period of the sublime mvention of Logarithms,
and their general diffusion in Tables of the present form,
such have opened new and great facilities to the mathemat-
ical calculators, on the subject of the musical Scale and its
Saenpeieess but it has been almost in vain, sc appeals
have been made to the mere Musician or Tuner, on the
utility and the easy application of these measures “of Ratios,
because the original difficulty has as often recurred, viz. the
want of apparent and natural connection, between ratios and
musical Intervals. I have on various occasions* attempted
to remove on difficulty, by shewing, that the reciprocal
common rithm of any Interval, correctly expresses
the decimal salen which that Interval bears, to the concord
called the muajor Twentyfourth, or XXIV (or 3VIII+ Hl)
whose Ratio is ',, and its reciprocal logarithm is 1-0000000;
but the difficulties with this class of Persons have in no de-
gree been removed, by endeavouring to explain to them,
that the reciprocal of a logarithm answers to the —
of division in the place of multiplication ; (or vice versa ;)
_in the present case, that the change of Sor —9, as the et
index of the common logarithm of the fraction az9 to 4
answers completely to the tuning or considering of a X
A ao instead of upwards, between its wane
When all the decimal places of figures beyond the fifth,
had been arbitrarily rejected, and the recip. log. so abridged,
multiplied by 100000 (as was done first, I believe, by Dr.
Robison) in order to obtain measures for the various Inter-
vals of the scale, and its Temperaments, 1 have not found
these further oie Se from any visible natural connection,
between the arbitrary numbers so obtained, and the musical
Intervals they are made to represent, to have the least ten-
dency towards gaining the attention and assent of the Mu-
sicians and ‘Tuners whom I have conversed with; but the
reverse of it, in more than one instance ; in one om
cases it has been urged’ to me, thus: “ if the logarithmic
* See the “ Edinburgh Encyclopedia,” edited by Dr. Brewster; vol. VII.
p. 31, vol. XT. p. 498, and in several other parts of that traly valuable Work.
;
:
|
;
Mr. Farey’s Letter on musical Intervals, &e. 69
measures of ratios admit of being thus modelled at will,
how are we any longer to place confidence in those Writings,
which speak always of the Concords, and the other Inter-
vals of the scale derived from them, as being rigidly measur-
ed by ratios, in small whole numbers, involving no prime
larger than 5?” To this, it may not be unseasonable for
me now to add, that in making the above mentioned re-
noes of the sixth and following places of recip. logs.,
although so great an error as ;3,ths of the fifth unit figure
the major Comma, the error is unavoidably ;’;ths, in the ex-
pression for the Interval, which so often happens to be the
unit of the Temperaments: and aon it may be said,
that even this is but the ;;},th part of a comma, yet this is
sufficient to shew the want of a natural foundation for this
mode of representing Intervals ; however useful - oe Math-
ematician, as approximations, ‘the same may with truth be
contended for, as has been done by Ar etrg Fisher in
your 17th page.
Notwithstanding it is found thus difficult to define, or to
assign intelligible measures to musical Intervals, owing to the
remoteness | a the analogy by which such are connected
with the ratios of Numbers, the most evident analogies con-
nect many of. these Intervals with each other, and shew them
to be quantities capable of addition and subtraction: thus,
no one with the least ear for music, will dissent from the
truth and conclusiveness of the experiment, performed on
an Organ or Piano-forte in his presence, of tuning, perfect
(and without any beatings) Ist, a major Fifth upwards from
2 given note, (as C) to G, and then a minor Fourth upon
his, or Ge, that then the compound interval Ce, is a true
Claatisis 5 2dly, if the Ifld CE, and on it the 6th Ec, be
tuned, he will agree, that the very same Note ¢ has been
arrived at, as before ; and 3dly, when the 3d CED, and then
the Vith th ED ¢ are tuned, he will still agree, that "the same
note cis again* arrived at; proving clearly, that either. of
these three pairs of Intorwals, make up, together, the same
sum of Intervals, viz. an Octave.
© in like manner, if the perfect Octave Cc be first tuned
apovards, and then either of the above six concords tuned
70 Mr. Farey’s Letter on musical Intervals, &¢.
downwards from c, another one of these concords, which is
éalled its complement, will in every case result or remain
(true, and without any Beats, as all experiments prove) as
the difference, between the lower Octave note C and the
lowest note of such subtracted concord.
It has been, therefore, with some propriety, that the ma-
jority of the writers of Treatises, have adopted, and adhered
to the principle, of defining Intervals, as the sums or differ-
ences of other Intervals, or of some of their multiples : and
the very frequent use of the major Tone T (having the ratio
ts of the minor Tone t (+ *;), and of the major Semitone S$
'§), as degrees or leaps in the Scale of melody, have led
these Writers almost unanimously to adopt those three Inter-
vals, as the terms of their Notation of Intervals, in general: in
which manner, for example, the above seven Concords,
beginning with the smallest, are expressed as follows, viz.
T+S, Tet T+t+58, 2 T+t+8, 2 P4142 8, 27T42t
+5, and 3T+ 2 th ot Paseciet answer to the Literals,
ED, E, F, G, 4
e, for in
Douzeave which Mr. Siena ails eee: ; (p. 28
of his “ Essay on perfect ee they are as follows,
viz. C=o0, C#=T—S, D=T, Fo=2 T+t, Go=
2t, Bo =2 cdi t+2 s, and B=3 T 42 t-+S8.
may proceed no further than to the con-
sideration eee the scale of 12 notes, which is defined above,
without proceeding to supply the other intermediate notes,
which become necessary in percent the modulation, (as
Mr. Liston has done,) may remain in a great degree igno-
rant of the great defect of this particular mode of Notation :
arising, not from any defect in its principle, as has been ob-
served above, but merely from the largeness of its terms,
T,tand$3; which occasion negative signs so frequently to
secur, and connecting such varied multiples of these terms,
as almost certainly to bewilder and disgust most of those
who may attempt to follow Mr. Liston, through the large
folding Tables inserted in his Essay. I have conversed
ps more than a score of Musicians, who had previously
sed Mr. L.’s Essay, but not one of whom had got over
ee atunsb sip bieicl last mentioned.—One of these Gentle-
men, having more perseverance than others, observed to me
|
|
|
Mr, Farey’s Letter on musical Intervals, §c. 71
neatly as follows :— H,, said he, I want to know whether,
in Mr. Liston’s Scale, cd is a higher or a lower note than
his BA; I find these Notes defined in his Tables, by 3'T
+3t, and 2T+2 t+3§, respectively : but my not being
able to carry in my head the recollection of the exact com-
parative magnitudes of 'T, t and S (whose relations in de-
cimals of either of them, i understand to be interminate, as
to places of figures, such never ending, or circulating) lam
unable to perceive which of these quantities is the largest :
if, continued he, I suppose the first to be the largest, “and
deduct the last from it, as eri do, I obtain T+t—
: but here again, from not being able readily to per-
ceve whether al —s than 3.8, I am left in doubt,
until after. ac i ~ some- considerable. labour, for
Ww
tion. ¢ vos pears if want vg on whether Mr. L.’s
Be, is higher or lower than his ¢; his expressions for them,
respectively, are, 4 T+2 t, and 2 T+3t+2583 but such
are not fitted for conveying at sight the information wanted :
—if I take their difference, as before, I find it to be 2'T—t
—2 5, which leaves me under similar difficulties, as in the
first case.
Long before Mr. Liston published his Essay, or I had
heard his name mentioned by any one, I had provided a
remedy for the inconvenience above stated, in the Notation
to. which Professor Fisher has referred, in your 18th page:
founded on the same principle as above, but using three
ary small Intervals, for the terms of my Notation, derived
from the Manuscripts of Mr. Overend, already mentioned,
and which had been marked by him =, f and m3 but which
{atervals, or any others, he had not adopted or used as a
Notation ; they merely stood amongst a multitude of his
isolated resul
The ear: of my Terms = (or the Schisma), is the very
same small Interval 2 T—t—2 S, which is mentioned
above ; 3 it occurs also, between ten others of the adjacent
notes in Mr. Liston’s Seals of 59 notes; and it is the small-
est Interval. which can ever occur, in the calculation of even
lar more extended Eubarmonic or untempered Scales, than
those of Mr. Liston’s Essay, as I have since fully shewn,
inthe Phil. Mag. vol. 39, p. 419, and vol. 49, p. 362, &c. : its
tatio ig 2'° +38 x5; my second Term f (or the lesser
42 Mr. Farey’s Letter on musical Intervals, &.
Fraction) is of the diatonic value—9 T+7 t-+5 S, and its
ratio is 37+ 2°* x 5°; and my third Term m (or the most
—* . =—21 T+10t+22 S, and its ratio is 3°4 x
fren
Scniphiened and appalling as these diatonic expressions
and ratios may appear at first sight, to many, the Intervals
x, fand m are, nevertheless, strictly founded in Nature,
and will as truly and as correctly represent musical Intervals,
in every possible case, as the Ratios composed of the prime
integers 2, 3 and 5, or any notation by Intervals, can do:
and with the important advantage, in no other way so well
attainable, of an encreasing series, throughout, in each of its
terms, as the Intervals increase in magnitude, which are
thereby expressed ; and yet, without negative signs, in any
case that can be of the least use. They have other material
advantages over any other notation by means of Intervals
that has been proposed: yet these I shall not here enlarge
on, but proceed briefly to mention, as follows :
The Octave, or 3, is in this notation, of ‘the value 6125
+12f4+53m, the major Twelfth ah VITI+V) or
970 +19f+84m, and the major or 2VIT
dia’
tion, ay eartiy adding either of these expressions, as often
as its corresponding integer is multiplied _ & denom-
nator of the Fraction (or largest number of the Ratio) and
subtracting such expressions, as often as such Shenae re-
spectively, are found multiplied in the numerator of the
fraction. The following examples wee I hope, make the
eo eror of this rule easy to any on
Ist. If the ratio given, be that of ahs major Fifth, or 3,
we have only to take 9705+ 19f484m, and deduct from
it 61224 12f+ 53m, and the a =~ 358z+ 7f+
31m, is the notation of V, as required. . If the major
Third or 922 be given, we must take aetek. os
and he it deduct the double of the first expression, 0
122454 24f+103m, which leaves 197244 +17, for
the notation of IH. 3rd. Hf the major Comma be given,
its ratio is $¢, or 24 x 5+3', and we must first take 4 times
the second expression, or 388024-76f+ 336m ; and next,
Mr. Farey’s Letter on musical Intervals, &c. 73
4 times the first expression, or 24485+448f+4212m, and
add it to the third expression, making 38692+76f+ 335m,
and then deduct this last, from the multiple first found in
this case, and the remainder is 11=+-m, the notation of c.
Further examples may appear unnecessary here ; yet it
will be proper to add, that if the calculations by this rule
are gone through, which are indicated above, by the ratios
answering to x, to f, and to m, respectively, they only, will
be found to result, respectively ; or, the truth of the whole
may be demonstrated in various other ways, as is shewn in
the “ Edinburgh Encyclopeedia,” vol. IX. p. 275.
TABLE I.
ie | Ratios. | Sure | Numerals. | recip. Logar.
C | 1+2 | 612 12 53)Vill, or Octave. | -3010299,96
B | 8+15 |5551148| VII -2730012,72
Bo | 9+16 | 508 10 44 7 ‘2498774,73
3+5 |451 939 VI -2218487,50
GH| 16+25 | 394 8 34) Ext. ¢V | -1938200,26
2-3 |358 731 Vv -1760912,59
FH} 32+45 | 301 6 26 IV *1480625,35
Fo | 3+4 (254 522 4 *1249387,37
E | 4+5° |197 417 iit -0969100,13
Eb! 5+6 |161 314 3 -0791812,46
D | s+9 !104 2 9] IT(orT) | -0511525,22
CH/128+135| 47 1 4 I -0231237,99
1+1 000 1 -0000000,00)
AD| 5+8 |415 8 36 6 -2041199,83)
D\| 9+10| 93 2 8 IL(ort) | -0457574,91
Do | 15+16 | 57 1 5] 2 (orS) | -0280287,24
1 e+e 1. 41°01 c -0053950,32}
32768+-32805|. 1 0 0 z “0004901,07
450283905
* 450350062 ba. 0:4 +0 f -0000733,50)
S| 8 0 1] =m ___ | -0000038,53)
Se ae 3 5
| Vou. I.....No. 1. | 10
74 Mr. Farey’s Letter on musical Intervals, &.
In the work last quoted, vol. XIII, p. 41, the 59 notes
of Mr. Liston’s Scale will be found expressed i in the nota-
tion that has now been described; from whic ave ex~
tracted, and placed in ‘Table sh the 12 notes of his original
Scale already mentioned her
The seven last lines of the shies Table have been added,
in order to mclude the concords of minor Sixth,
Tone, the major Semitone and the Comma; and the Séhin-
ma, the lesser L’raction, and the most Mistabee This Table
can hardly need further explanation: 1 wi therefore pro-
ceed to some furtherremarks.
he expressions in col. 3 of the above Table, aceurately
express the values of the Intervals in cols. 4 and 2: and
such is the peculiar and natural commection, between the
rates of increase upwards in the ‘Table, for each of the terms
=, fand m, that whatever result or truth appears conjointly
from the three terms, after any process of adding or sub-
iracting Intervals i in yeh erat has oe performed, the
separately i there bein: baere;| no carr rying oF ag (in
Ww 1umbers, at least) from one column to ie as ip
common Arithmetic. $ endently of the other
rations performed with these Spee as giving a rough
value in artificial Semitones, or 12th part the octave :
every” tke result in the m column will oe a considerably
more accurate value, in the artificial Commas of Nicholas
Merion or 53d parts of the octave, very nearly : and
every result of like operations in the z column, will give
rigidly accurate results, in all such Euharmonie or untem-
pered caleulations as are alluded to above, and will approx-
imate to the truth, abundantly sufficient for nearly every
practical purpose of Harmonics, being extremely near to the
Gia parts of the octave, and to “the 11th’ parts of the
r comma.
When Tempered Systems are to be calculated, fractional
arts of the major comma, expressed in Schismas, ma}
joined with these artificial commas without at alt disturbing
the consistency of their results: thus, if the Jsetonie scale
of equal Semitones were required to be calculated, the flat
ning Seige a: of the Vth is known to be extremely near
to 7th of a major comma, which is 2, and the true Vth
———— ee ee aa Oe
|
|
|
]
1
1
|
Mr. Farey’s Letter on musical Intervals, &¢. 75
being 358z, 3572 is the Isotonic fifth; 12of which, or 4284,
prove to be just equal to 7 x 6123, as should be the case.
Tf all the three columns of my notation had been here used,
a greater degree of exactness only equal to m, or the scisth
part of a comma, would have been gained thereby.
Again, ifa Mean-Tone Douzeave were required to be
calculated, where ze is the flat Temperament of the Vth;
358—2 22, = 355! is its tempered fifth : which multiplied by
- 11, gives 390722, and this taken from 7VIII or 4284s,
leaves 37643, or V+ 1842, as the wolf fifth of this system
ey GHeb) as is well Hise, although I now og
hat I have inadvertently pala it 21z, in the Phil. Mag
2a) 36, p. 45.
{ can now proceed to. the main object of the present Let-
ter, viz. to shew how the Notes of Profesor F isher’ $ pro-
portionally-tempered Douzeave, in your 195th page, may
be expressed in these artificial commas (and decimals of
them) with greater accuracy, than in the 5—-place recip, logs.
in which they are now expressed ; and in which state, I
have hopes of this new Scale of Intervals, deduced with so
much ingenuity and labour by Professor F’. attracting, in
this country at least, a somewhat greater share of attention
from the practical Musicians and Tuners, than, in its present
logarithmic denomination, it seems to me like y to obtain,
for reasons which have already been given her
beginning at the bottom of the Table i in abe 194,
aka: progressiv ely adding together the numbers therein, the
value ie each Note of the Douzeave will ee had in 5-place
recip, logs. ; B for instance, being -27208 ; let this be at
tracted from the value of B in the last column of my fi
Table, and the difference will be found =:0009212,72 ; iad
this difference we must convert into Schismas and decimals
by dividing by the value of Zin the Table, or by °0004901-07 ;
and thus we get 1°87973, as the flattening or deduction to
be made from 5555, the artificial commas of B; which
thereby becomes 553° 1203s, as in col. 2 of the Table I.
following. By proceeding in a similar manner, the ten other
artificial commas and decimals in this Table may be cal-
culated.*
* It is a more fea. and correct mode, than by common di-
vision, touse Logemetric Logarithms (see Edin. Ene ye. vol. XITT,
p- *72) or the Negeri of the recip. logs. : ca oticeng that
76 Mr. Farey’s Letter on musical Iniervals, c.
TABLE II.
|’ Intervals of the Scale, in ) Temperaments, of the _
Literals| Artificial com-|Numerals || Vths IlIds | =.
zs zs) | rst |
c 612°0000| VIII
Bi: 5531203) VII 2°9lw 13°8 3.0
Bo 512°6776| 7 2°2 14iw 22-7
A 4541447; VI 2-8} 59-2 31
Gy 3979991 |Ext.4V\\wit7-9\w 17-0 5°9
G 355°24 Qe 0-9 36
F fi 296°2000, IV 3°3)w 19°5 Bo |
F 256°5327 2-6. O-6\w 19°5
E 197°3246| III 22, oS 3
ED | 151-8974) 3 42-8} 6-3iw 16-7
D 99°0776| II 2:9 0-1 3°6
CH 38°9328| I H1-1\w 20-6} 26
C 0° 1 2°38 0:3) 94
23-8| + 84-2| —96.0
ogee $118) —0-2)
i ar Ess tet ps te
The three first columns of the above Table can need ne
further description; except mentioning, that in case the f’s
36902910, is oe constant jog. log. for reducing 7—place recip. logs.
to logs. of Schisn s ; and such is likewise the constant addend for
reducing Schisnias to recip. common logs. In the above example
the log. of 9212:72 is 39643878 ; from which take the constant
log. log. 3°6902910 (or 1s: of 4901-07) and 0°2740968 remains,
whose number is 1°879742 as above.
fn this manner also, may ee pidge other primes larger than
5, be reduced to my notation: if for example, the false minor
Third § mentioned in your 195th paae,' were given : the Tabular
recip. log. of $ (or log. of 2) is-0669467,90, which falls short of ED ~
in my Ist Table, by -01 sarteeat from whose log. take the con-
stant log. log. of 5, and we find then remai
der to be 24-9628= ; and therefoke’ ® $2136 0575-4 Sf 1am 3 ;
where, for the purposes of ‘Temperame nts, the first of the two last
terms, or the f’s, a. always be sieplected, as not —— the re-
only be used, unless sometimes, and where extreme accuracy is
—_—— as will be further shewn.
EE
Mr. Farey’s Letter on musical Intervals, &. 77
and m’s are wanted, they are the same as in Table 1; and
in order to obtain the numbers in the remaining "Pa
octaves must be stated above col. 2, for the Notes ct, d, eb,
e, f and f#, by adding 612= to each of the eatrespntiding
oer from Cit to Fz.
t must be recollected, (as is shewe in Table I.) that the
three perfect concords whose Numerals stand at the heads
of cols. 4, 5 and 6, are 358z, 197= and 161 respectively :
and the ode of obtaining the numbers in these three last
columns, will then be made evident, by two examples, viz.
Ist, in order to calculate the Temperaments of the Vth
above B; from the value of its upper note f# or 908-2000,
take the’ value of B_ or 553-1203, and the remainder is
355°0797z, which being less than 358, shews the Tem-
perament to be flat, as is expressed at the top of the co-
mn, and the difference of the two last numbers is 29203,
the Temperament required, but only the two first of these.
figures is entered. in the Table, for reasons which will ap-
pear in the Note which is annexed.*
* Rather more exact results than the Schismas and tenths ae:
are set down in Table II, might be obtained, by multiplying
fessor Fisher’s Temperaments, in his X {th Ta ble, by O° 6204037 5 }
and this ene mey be used for checking my Tab ble. ‘The rea-
tend farther on; and because, when more places of decimals are re-
quired to be tru rue, some corrections must be made, for the m’s that
are overlooked in the above calculations, by artificial commas.
The f’s or second terms of my Notation, do not occasion errors in.
any of these calculations ; nor do the m’s do so, in the See aS
aemeot 8 of the Vths viz. on C, E, F, Fi, G,A, Bo or B; or i
ei we n.G D, ED e F or G3; or in 5 of the di,
viz. on "The corrections ‘of the Vth Tempera-
ments arp as follovin, viz. those on Ctt, D, and Eb require to be
altered m (or -00738622 z) vy iz. ie ip etapercascuts that are f, to be
decreased, that which is 6, increased: and the wolf on Gf re-
quires to ba increased 2m m (or DST 24s.) -) The Mlds bp i
ments require correcting thus; viz. those on | CH, FH, A and
to be altered m: the { Temperaments to be increased, and the ‘
one decreased ; and the Temperaments on GH and B, requiie to be
increased 2m. And i in the 3ds column, the Temperaments on
78 Mr. Farey’s Letter on musical Intervals, &c.
Qdly. We will suppose that I was at first at a loss to recol-
lect, which is the note in the upper octave, that limits the
major third above B; I have, for removing this difficulty,
only to add 197 to 543, which gives 7502 ; and to observe
that this is the nearest to eb, which is 763-8974 ; from this
therefore, I must take B or 553:1203, and 210°7771 re-
mains ; which exceeds 197, by 13°77712, and shews this
last to be the sharp Temperament of this major third wolf.
Besides distinguishing those Temperaments in col.
g t
of flat, I have added a w to distinguish the fifth wolf; the
same remark applies to col. 5, as to the temperament of the
ilId on A being flat, and to the four major third wolves, and
also to the three minor third wolves, in col. 6. I have at
the bottom of the columns, added up the sharp and flat tem-
peraments, in order to shew that the Sum in col. 4 is
—12-02; in col. 5, =+84°02; and in col. 6, =—96- Os ;
these + being general properties of all Douzeave systems :
sos if my knowledge and memory correctly serve me, |
as the first to publish, in the Phil. Mag. Vol. 28, plete 5;
iat to demonstrate in Vol. 36, p. 43.
The order of the’several concords, as to their envio of
harmoniousness, measured by their Temperaments, to the
nearest tenth of a Schisma, or ;}> of a comma, are as fol-
lows = :
cH, D , Fo, Gis nd Bo, require to be altered m, and those on Eb
and F, peweue correcting 2 m; all of these, by increasing the
Temperame
S eranate must suffice ; in the Text, the Temperament of
the et? Ilfd on B, has already been found 13: (Me which it now
appears, is to be increased °0157=, and made 13-7928. This
— might t have been lessened, if the secre Table X. had
ited “2 con in Schismas and decimals, by applying the
saabers | in Table IX, to the numbers of an Isotonic Douzeave
composed of ihe of 512.
_+ When the corrections of the Temperaments, on accont of
the m’s, are made, the casting will stand thus, viz. —23-7527
+ 11°7448, —12-00079E ; + 84-2669 —‘2040, —84-0629=; and
—96-0708%, which sccord with my determinations in the Philo-
sophical Magazine.
Mr. Farey’s Letter on musical Intervals, &e. 79
TABLE Iii.
iflds on ‘Gene Bths below) D 0-1, A 02, € 0.3, F 06, G
0-9, Bo “4, E 3-7, Eb 6-3; B18, GH 17-0, Fit 19-5, and
ott 20
Vths on (and 4ths below) CH bl, Bo’2:2, -G 2:2, EF, 2-2,
eae » C 28, Eb 2°8,:A 2:8, B 2:9, D 29, FH 3-3; and
ads on ie Viths below) CH 2-6, B 3:0, FE 3-1, E3- rs
, al ,D 36, G36, ith Cos Eb 16-7, F 195, and
It will be seen from Pema Fisher’s Table in p. 32,
that a it Be aaa, Gant Da of organ pieces, in the major
spe no less marked majority of
aenert mode, in A an ;
account that I have trav a black line, to separa rate the
minor thirds in the above Table: the Vths are placed in
the middle line, for more ready comparison with the ITds
above and the 3ds below ; and the wolves are separated by
is ate
beg now to congratulate Professor Fisher on the happy
result of his ingenuity and labour, in calculating this Dou
zeave : viz. as to the very near agreement exhibited slain
with what I =a at to be the present practice of all the
best Tuners of organs; I mean, as to the exceedingly
small Ropipesscaci ‘of that very important ‘concord the
mayor Third, in the five most important Keys, viz, G, D,
C, F and A; as to the very moderate temperament of ‘this
concord, in the Keys. Bo and E; and as to the four IId
wolves, (which are, alas! inseparable from a Douzeave
Seale,) falling in those Keys, where . ssh Tuners
‘have been used to throw them; an e least of. these
wolves falls in the Key of B, which sire oceurs. The
only thing which strikes me as an unlooked-for anomaly as
to the IIds, is, the isn iran on Eb, being so consider-
able, as more than half a comm
With regard to the fifths, anneal with relation both to
the major and minor Hides: in the three important Keys G,
F and E, the Temperaments are less than in the Mean-Tone
system (or 235 ) now so generally used on the org in
- the three other i important Keys D, C and Eb, the Te cae cht
30, = Mr. Farey’s Letter on musical Intervals, &c.
ments are but a trifle greater than the ‘Temperaments in
use ; and the Vth wolf falls in the same Key, and is con-
siderably less than half of the usual quantity ; owing to two
others of the fifths being in small degrees sharpened, which
seems a great and important novelty.
As to the minor Thirds, the two most important Keys, A
and E, have ‘Temperaments which but very little exceed
those in use, and in neither of the three next most important
Keys D, G and B, does the Temperament one-third ex-
ceed those of the Mean-Tone system ; and lastly, the three
3d wolves fall in the three Keys, to which the practical
‘Tuner assigns them ; agreeably to what is stated in my Tem-
perament Theorens Phil. Mag. vol. 36, p. 42: the 11th
Scholium to which defines the chief properties of the
Equal-harmony Douzeave of Professor Fisher, in his 3d
proposition.
I beg leave to remark, that I have long been impressed
with the importance and. desirableness of what Professor
Fisher has now performed for the Musical world, as far at
least as Organ Music is concerned, as will be seen by refer-
ence to the work last quoted, vol. 26, p. 176 ; and vol. 27,
p- 319 and 320.
I am not aware that any one before me, had pablished
the accurate and very simple mode of calculating Beats, which
Professor Fisher ey rather too briefly mentioned, at the
bottom of page 181: many years ago, I deduced it as a
corollary from the ‘202d proposition of Emerson’s Algebra,
whose Theorem I have quoted in the Edinb. Enc. Vol. III,
p- 369, and there first published my Theorem
In a future communication to you, I wish much that Prof.
Fisher would mention the Temperament, or else otherwise
define the system, which he has entitled the French one, in
page 198: and also say, whether at the op of p. 31, he
Soros not mean #Vth on C, and #VIth on F?
I regret exceedingly that. the bilesbehacs for-Table IV,
in page 34, were abridged of their “three last places of
figures, particularly the two first of these, and earnestly re-
quest, that Professor Fisher will yet supply these, through
the medium of » _ ert and he will still further oblige,
Voit shed. humble servt.
JOHN FAREY Senr. |
Howland Street, London, 30. April, 1819. —
:
Medical Chemistry. 81
I regret very much, to find the Geological Ob-
servers in your vast and interesting country, so very com-
monly to omit stating bearings and distances, from known
Towns, as well as nearest distances and bearings from known
Streams, as the means of more pefectly fixing the localities
of their particular observations, and conveying an idea of
the same to Readers here and elsewhere, who can have no
mode of denoting the latter, is, by the proportion of the
measure of /evel, to one of perpendicular fall: as for in-
NE 1 in 5, or SW 1 in 2, &c. ; and #% ory,*
Freestone, Ironstone, Gypsum, Clays &c. will always in-
clude the above particulars, in their descriptions sent for
your work.
MEDICAL CHEMISTRY.
PRUSSIC ACID.
Arr. VII. Abstract and translation of Dr. F. Magenpie’s
late publication on Prussic Acid—by the Exitor, with re-
marks.
* Mr. Farey’s marks in his MS. are arrow heads ; nor characters of nearer
1!
resemblance were at hand.
3) eg
fe i ee
§2 Medical Chemistry.
anv not fail deeply to interest society at large, as well as
the faculty of medicine. As far as I am informed, these re-
searches have not been so extensively proséeuted in the
nited States as could be desired,*—partly from the diffi-
culty of obtaining the acid, w hich is no where sold in the
shops, and which can be prepared only by a practical chem-
as and partly, in all probability, from negligence and in-
edulity. Having received from Paris, a recent publica-
tion by Dr. Magendie, on this subject,} containing many
additional —— le by himself, and by various other
enli -men, in different countries ; and, not having
met Seri any translation of, or abstract from it, Dhave
thought, that I could not do baseees than to present the sub-
stance of this new memoir to my readers, partly x trans~
lation and partly by abstract, and analysis.—For obvious
reasons, I have not drawn any thing from the first memoir
of Dr. Masendie, which he has republished in due connex-
ion with his present work; still, it will be useful to remem-
ie that the conclusions whieh. he drew. me that! wr from
parte oe on prussic acid: seared: ue wert 23:
c acid is ieondaoeatlye poisonous aid
Galaee er improper to a used in medicine. =
2. Thaf, diluted with water, it can be advantageously
— for the cure of nervous and chronic couphes:
t it may be useful in the palla ative treatment of
iii by diminishing the imtensity and frequency of the
cough—moderating the ee and favouring sleep. :
4. That there is some reason to hope, that it may be-
ae useful in the curative wuaiom of phthisis pulmonalis
especially when it has not yet passed its first —
Sor
- Smith, Frotsiior of Chemist try Soc. in 1 the oot of South Carolina;
and, being tater ve in the newspapers, deservedly eceiebd 3 a Peoba deal of
attention. > f i
itshould have ne ee decided! y the odour of : ‘ach Boiwdmas,
r o
t ei &
+ Recherches pi aot logiques et "aig sur Vemplot de l’Acide Pras-
sigue ou Hydro—cyanique, dans le traitement des maladies de — et
pargcullbrement PS ahs calut ide la Phthisie 5 pulintaales. Se Paris, 819
Medical Chemistry, 83
— ae and enlightened physician then goes on to ob-
a White publishing these researches, almost three years ago,
my principal object was to attract the attention of practi-
tioners to a saagert which appeared to me worthy of. inter-
esting them.
** My wish has been aepmtiplished even beyond my doin:
“The medical faculty of Paris have placed the Prussic
acid in the number of remedies recommended by the new
Codex; and many physicians, both French and foreign,
have not only repeated but have greatly extended sine
periments.” (Observations.) _
“Tt is therefore with pleasure and gratitude that IT pro-
Grads to record. the results: obtained nd my: brethren. —
ears ind 1817 atMil-
Ini exp! ess RE EE se 8. 253
“T have oe wonderful réstilts boys “ prassic ‘tid
prepared. accor to the process of Scheele, upon four
children of ae family affected by the whooping cough
I put three drops of the acid into an ounce of distilled water,
and caused this mixture to be given every two hours by a
spoonful at once ; the children themselves, — stated to
me, that prcie.'54 commenced the use of this prea nae in the
ginhing the use of this liquid, the whooping cough disap-
a from: two of them, and from the other two a mney aye
after.’
eight more ; thirty drops of prussic acid were given in an
emulsion a“ gum arabic, during the day, and twelve more in
the n ight ; the following day, the urine became copious, and
full of sediment ; after this the expectoration diminished—
84 Medical Chemistry.
the respiration became more easy——the cough less wearing
—the pain in the side gradually ceased, and in a few days,
by this mild and simple treatment, the patient became quite
well.
Dr. Manzoni, in the same thesis, assures us that the pro-
fessor derived the most signal advantage from the use of the
prussic acid in bronchial inflammation ; in catarrhs, and in
isis. man, thirty-four years old, rapidly ve
towards the tuberculous state of phthisis, by taking the prus-
sic acid, in emulsion of gum arabic, had his sreewies ex-
pectoration both ameliorated one diminished, and his life,
(before very mesionotsi prolong
Two women with chronic pan attended by pores
and purulent expectoration, in a short time, by the
the prussic acid, found the matter changed into sim le mu-
cus and left the clinical institution almost in perfect health.
In ie Brera’s private practice many similar cases
occurred. ong 0 Otay the fo ane mamposable i instance
copious |
moptysie a fs OO segs caciadathhs ee
bloodletting had been resorted to in vain, when i. Brera
prescribed under the et of pills, one —e drops of the
prussic acid, to be taken in the course of the night ; this, as
he expresses it, a 8 arrested. ~ bleeding. The
use of the prussic acid, in doses of from thirty to fifty drops,
in twenty-four hours, continued. for five. days, fact this
lady to perfect health without leaving the slightest trace of a
pulmonary affection.*
Dr. Brera, by the use of prussic acid, with the leaves of
the atropa belladona, succeeded in curing perfectly a schir-
rous affection of the womb, complicated witha syphilitic
affection.
another case, a noble lady at. Padua, aged twenty-sev-
en years, of an irritable temperament, placed herself unde
the care of Dr. Brera. She had a chronic uterine affection,
Dr. Magendie very just
in pills, because, from its excessive voli especially at an neevated Sine
ace re, muc a pe _ lost; this is the reason why this =
a a
Medical Chemistry. 85
marked by extreme pain and great heat; (“au fond de I’ ute-
rus et par un ecoulement m mucoso—purulent par le vagin.
L’ ouverture du col présentait au toucher une chaleur plus
forte que la chaleur naturelle et un assez grand nombre @
mégalitiés; les menstrues se montraient sans regularite,”)
with the fever, there was uterine colic, constipation, and he-
morrhoidal tumours, which had been of considerable stand-
ing. On the twelfth day of the disease, this lady was sei-
zed with a violent (and with her) an unparalleled uterine
hoemorrhage ; which proved uncontrollable by any of the
common means. If the bleeding diminished in a degree,
the pains of the uterus, and of the } piles, became intolerable ;
and on the contrary, if these per were assuaged, there was
great reason to fear that she wo
drops of the acid been given, when irregular palpitations
great anxiety, and vertigo were experienced. cid
was then discontinued, and a simple infusion of chamomile
substituted. Soon after, the ski, which to that time had
been dry and hot, became covered with an abundant per-
spiration—the hoemorrhoidal and uterine pains ceased—the
bleeding stopped—the bowels became free—the urine abun-
dant and healthy, and all the other numerous and distressing
affections disappeared; mild injections of the prussic acid
were used towards the termination of the disease. It re-
sults from the observations a Dr s Brera and Borda, who
in 1810 made much use of this acid in sthenic divedses: that
itis one of the best aiaage to calm the movements of the
heart—to diminish febrile irritation, and to encounter the
most severe inflammations. Observations of this kind have
een much multiplied in Italy. At Padua, most diseases
are much complicated: by worms, (vers lombricoides,) in
the intestinal canal, which are very promptly expelled, and
even while still alive, by the use of the A bec acl
The experience of Dr. Granville in England is cited by
De. a Dr. Granville mentions cases of advanced
consumptive patients, in whom the prussic acid produced
sensible amelioration, but without effecting a cure. A young
man and woman, however, who attended the gratuitous
86 Medical Chemisiry.
consultation of Dr. Scudamore, exhibited every appearance
of confirmed pthisis ; they had a worrying cough—emacia-
tion—frequent pulse—night sweats—debility—purulent ex-
pectoration, and that particular form of the nails, which
commonly accompanies these symptoms. The Dr. gave
them both the prussic acid in the dose of ten drops a day,
and soon had the pleasure of seeing them restored to per-
fect health, in which condition, after the lapse of eight
months, the young woman called to thank her physician.
Several cases are cited of English patients, affected with
hectic fever, and sympathetic cough, who were greatly re-
lieved by the prussic acid, and some of them appear to have
been cured. The cases, although interesting, are too long
to be detailed in this abstract, and the symptoms arose from
different causes. In one case, a hectic fever, with cough, ,
&c. grew out of a long continued inflammation of ‘the liver,
attended with tubercles and adhesion ; 3 in another it arose
from miscarriage and grief; in a third, from a schirrous af-
fection of the ovarium ; in a fourth, from typhus fever, end-
ing in delirium ; and ina fifth, (a lad-of ten ——— old;) it
came. on without tany obvious cause. The two last cases
were of a very desperate character, and yielded to the use
of prussic acid, when all other means had failed.
Asthma of six years standing, in a man of advanced age.’
vated by cold dampness or exercise, and
was greatl
was replaced by a constant dry cough whenever the —
ed; the disease was augmented by food and de-~
prived the tient of sleep, and was attended by a swelling
rf the limbs, and chills and fever at evening 3 this formida~
ble complaint, with. all its concomitant maladies, was so
much relieved by prussic acid, that the patient acquired a
degree of comfort to. which he had long been a stranger;
he could go up stairs without inconvenience, and constantly
arrested the progress of his complaints by a recurrence to
the prussic acid, whenever they menaced a return. —
In colds and catarrhs especially where, by neglect, alarm=
ing or troublesome symptoms were supervening, the prussic
acid appears to have been very useful and i in most cases en-
ke effectual.
In one case a woman, five pa ee ieenceth in her eighth
pregnancy, and dunes the five months affected witha vio-
* Vid Recherches, &c par, Magendie Doctenr,i&e. pp. 33 to 38.
Medical Chemistry. 87
lent convulsive cough, attended by extreme irritation, was
entirely relieved by the prussic acid, without sustaining the
slightest i ete a from her peculiar situation.
Dr. Granville’s own children, four in number and the °
saniees an infant at the breast, were all attacked by the
whooping-cough, which soon became very violent with the
usual attendants of suffocation, vomiting, tears, extreme ten-
sion of the blood vessels of the head, severe head ache,
deprivation of sleep, &c. In one week they were all cured
entirely by the exclusive use of the prussic acid.
‘Dr. A. 'T. Thomson in a communication to Dr. Ciearvills
says: “the diseases in which I have prescribed the prussic
acid are catarrhal affections accompanied by cough, and in
chronic coughs.” —+ J have used it with very gre eat success
ich act ign epidemically in the
reach heciaapoeaien T live. The disease’ begins 8
chills, which are soon followed by a febrile excite
sneezing, hoarseness and thirst, and a hard cough which
comes by paroxysms, is more frequent during the night and
deprives the patients of sleep; the tongue is furred, the
bowels costive and expectoration very difficult. Since I
eee used the pesnae acid 1 have — had recourse to
by the prussic itd upon the circulation. Soot’ be-
gin by purging the patient, then I give the acid dissolved in
distilled wate, or ina simple almond emulsion; I take care
to proportion the dose to the age and strength of the individ-
uals, gradually increasing it till the cough has ceased. 1
begin with adults by giving them every two or three hours,
two drops ina spoonful of the vehicle. For chiklren be-
tween four months and one a I have prepared the fol-
mene formula. -
oR. Prussicacid; «+ = =~ 2 drops.»
Distilled. water, dew eet vee > @ fluid drachms.
Syrup of tolu, « - 1 fluid drachm.:
: Mex that and give two small tea a rem every three
ours,
88 Medical Chemistry.
acid 3 in eatarrhal affections, is to procure ee and to di-
the frequency of the paroxysms of coughing. The
next day, we find the pulse less quick and hard, and by de-
grees the cough becomes less violent. I have not observed
that it produces expectoration, but it —- or
the cough, and renders it less laborious. The intestinal ca~
nal is gently excited, so that [ have rarely seaadl comgaaien
to give purgatives a second time. By the moderate use of
certain stimulants, we easily obviate the languor which
sometimes in feeble and aged subjects, follows the use o
the prussic acid ; and when the cough is alleviated, we can
certainly remove the debility by the use of the ammoniacal
tincture of iron, dissolved in brandy and water.
Among the particular cases mentioned by Dr. ‘Thomson,
are some sufliciently remarkable-—A man. of thirty-seven
years of age, habitually very healthy, and of a plethoric
habit, had been for several weeks tormented with a very
wearing cough, which almost deprived. bim: of sleep; the
paroxysms became constantly more more frequent ;
his throat was much affected—he had a great hoarseness,
with a short and wheezing after a cathartic, he
respiration ;
took the prussic acid every two hours—dose, two drops in
twelve drachms of water. Immediately he gained sleep—
his cough abated—expectoration became easy—the pulse
grew soft, and in three days all the ew of the disease
were sed.
A lady, aged forty years, of a sanguine and inritabte tem-
perament, and naturally gay, had been for two years labour-
ing under the pthisis trachealis. Having the first year de-
rived no benefit from medicine, she neglected the com-
plaint the second year, and took medicines only when the —
symptoms were aggravated. e disease was marked by
a laborious cough—a perception of dryness in the throat,
with danger of immediate suffocation, and a general inflam-
mation and swelling of the back part of the mouth. These
symptoms, accompanied by fever, and great irritability,
never entirely ceased ; they diminished at intervals, e
cially in summer, but returned with increased violence pith
every exposure to cold. She was advised to quit England
for warmer climates, but this was not executed. She
worse—her pulse was small, quick, i ar, and varying
with the state of her mind. She had pee noes and very
Medical Chemistry. 89
little repose, and that much disturbed. Her physician hap-
pened to come in (Jan. 26,) while she was in a violent pare
oxysm of coughing, resembling croup, and with imminent
danger of suffocation ; her pulse as before, the back part of
the mouth very much inflamed, and furrowed, as «it ee
with ee vessels, injected with blood.
ing been purged, poet acid was administered in
the iollombig prescription :
R. Prussic acid, — - - - 12 dro
Rose water, ‘~ ~ - half a fluid ounce.
Syrup of popies 3 fluid drachms,
Mix them, and ike a hibgn tea spoon full every two
hours.
The next day the —_ was much better; had enjoy-
eda better night than for several months, without cough or
prussic acid was continued four days, each time augmenting
the dose two drops. The fourth day nausea occurred,
the symptoms being much better, the remedy was discon-
tinued. From that time she remained perfectly well, had
no relapse, and considered her restoration as almost a mir-
racle, and believed herself perfectly cured. The writer
dates on the 26th of February, and says, that in his view
she still needs much care, anda particular regimen, and
that a8 disease, if not entirely removed, is arrested in its
—
re aide gentleman being affected every winter with a
of the prussic acid, and being called by the service to an-
mplain
A gow outy patient, troubled an a aon dyspepsia, was
sacked by the epidemic catarrh, and was relieved by the
prussic acid.
Dr. Kerkaradec, of Paris, relates his experience in the
use of the phussic aci
one case of nervous cough, in a patient of forty -—
* age, it was ineffectual, probably because it was gi
ery trifling doses, and often omitted by the patient, sh ‘t
oes ote Meno. that it did any neg
OL
90 Medical Chemistry.
In another patient, in the last stage of consumption, it
was given in very small portions, but it appeared rather to
aggravate the cough, and its use was abandoned ; the pa-
tient died soon after: it does not appear that in this case it
accelerated the death, which seems to —_ occurred be-
cause the disease had run its course.. It does not seem to
be useful in the last stage of consumption, lon perhaps. it
would be difficult to point out any thing else that is.
Dr. Kerkaradec relates another case, of a child of seven
years, which for five months was afflicted with a dry cough,
constant and very wearing, attended by pain in the left side
of the chest, by fever, &c. The usual remedies were ap-
plied for three months, without success, when the whoop-
ing cough supervened in a viclent degree, and after sayin
on three months, was spontaneously cured. The d
cough then returned, and after a month more, was found .
be constant ; the pain in the side recurred, and the left side
_ of the chest gave a bad sound ; the tongue was white—the
appetite gone—-the bowels ams consiipated=renlatged,
and somewhat sensible to the touch ; there was a ea
quickness of pulse, considerable aeromaa a tendency to
siness, and a severe pain in the head. ‘The usual al
were applied with some mitigation of the symptoms, but the
cough — ——— its peculiar character. The
prussic acid was then administered, twelve drops i in three
ipa taken by sponte once in two hours. (“La dose
fut d’une cuillerée a café toutes les deux heures.” (At
the end of three days, the cough began to diminish, and
three potions more, into which there. entered fifteen drops
of the medicine, completed the cure, and at the end of seven
months there had been no return of the complaint.
A little girl three and a half years old had a whooping
cough of five cones lero fits of coughing were
very violent, and at least twelve ina day, producing mu-
cous expectoration, ors a great deal of blood ; the disease
was assuaged by leeches applied to the left side "of the chest,
where they were indicated by the sound ; the blood ceased
to appear, and the cough was less frequent, and less violent.
The prussic acid, twelve or fifteen drops, administered in
the usual manner,* in po tions, removed the cough after two
potions, and in twelve days it he ities
* Viz. where twelve were employed befo:
Medical Chemistry. 91
The little brother of this child, nine months old and at
the breast, was immediately relieved from an incipient
whooping cough by the same means.
A child of four and a half years was affected for five
months, by a whooping cough, for the cure of which all the
common remedies and especially the ‘syrup of ipecacuana
had been applied in vain. Fifteen drops of the prussic acid
were then administered in the course of three days; this
remedy was then discontinued for four or five days, on ac-
count of a febrile Se which lasted that length of
time; it was then resumed and the cough disappeared in
five days more; it veusaitses recurred at distant intervals,
owing to wet os but bashing, caused it finally to dis-
appear.
ie Fall of ee years-of age, of a plethoric habit, but
enjoying perfect health, and with: regular habits in all re-
ects, (“et i quantité, de sang évacué tous les mois était
a idante”) was, without any obvious cause seized with
acute pains in the stomach, followed by a cough, which oc-
severe.
~ In summing up this mass of evidence, T Dr. Magendie ob-
serves, that the remarkable accordance, between the obser-
vations of distinguished men in various countries of
appears: to be an irresistible proof in favour of this new med-
bth and ‘of its perfect innocence, even in large doses, ad-
ministered with prudence but without unnecessary timi
He: remarks, that since the publication of his first me-
moir, he has been much occupied in the eA I of
92 Medical Chemistry.
in various stages; that in some instances he has seen it in
common with all other remedies, completely fail, and the
unhappy patients pursue their downward progress to the
grave: that on the contrary, in a great number of instances,
-he has seen a sensible amelioration in the most distressing
symptoms ; the cough has become less frequent ; the ex-
pectoration more free, and the sleep more prolonged.
“It is s Dr. Magendie,) with satisfaction easily un-
daha. that. 1 have seen the symptoms of phthisis com-
a cease in oct (seven ?) different circumstances ; in
m four to six years, in a young woman of
fifteen, in Dodie of twenty, in a young man of twenty five,
and im an old man of sixty-six ; and it is with the most anx-
ious solicitude, that I have waited their state of health, for
the purpose of learning, whether the evil is really arrested,
or only suspended in its progress. Time only can decide;
{ can only say that the two ladies whose cases were reported
in my first memoir, and whose cure is of four years stand-
ing, continue to enjoy perfect health.”
ith respect to the dose, Dr. Magendie remarks, that as
the effect of the prussic acid is very different in different in
dividuals, - is necessary to begin with a modera te: doles ;
but seep Set in in it provided its effects
collecting the acid in a cold receiver. This acid is to bi
diluted with six times its volume or eight and a half times
its weight of distilled water.
Remark. As the preparation of the acid of Gay Lussac
is — without danger to the operator, on account of its ter-
energy, even in aa it is presume that having once
ascertained how much of Gay Lussac’s acid, a given w:
of Prussiate of Mercury will afford, it will be Aes to
place at once in the receiver, pevatt and a half parts of water
and thus obtain a diluted and much less dangerous acid.
I have found very unpleasant effects even from breathing
the vapour of the prussic acid when I have prepared it after
—
Medical Chemistry. 98
the process of awe and my assistants have she ‘much
incommoded with vi 0, nausea and even swoonin ;
Dr. a ves the ve ese formulas for a setoes
bition of the acid
ta
Pectoral Mixture.
R. Prussic acid medicinal, - - 1 drachm,
nese is wes 1 pound,
1 1} ounce,
F.S. rg "Take one table spnoefal in the morning and
ne in the dana: whee going to bed.
‘ Pectoral A mas
R. Infusion of ground ivy, ey ot drachii;
Prussic acid, (nedicnal) = 18 drops,
_ Syrup of marsh mallow 1 ounce,
F. S. L. Take a potion by spoonfuls; once in three
—
Strup cyanique, or Prussic Syrup.
rup of sugar, ete nas 1 pound,
Prussic acid, (medicinal) ~ 1 drachm,
Mix them exa sages
This syrup is used to add to the pectoral potions and as’
a substitute for the other syrups.
T have procured for the use of medical friends, directly
— Dr. Biagencl several vials of Prussic acid, such as he
containing pro of Scheele
A bottle robably an e of the
ea accidentally knocked from the te table, in my Siearstors and broken,
the vapour exbaled (although | the liquid was i nstantly y covered wit] ashes
uscular and intellectual powers seemed almost prostrated
oe ili in AA? ening and ina similar manner: the next mornin ng he swoon
ed on ri ‘and fell upon the floor—he eeble al-
thon for several days, but gradually recovered by using mild
wage nts; aqua ammoniz, wine, &c.) his pulse was very feeble
mall, and ae nervous and muscular wend ers het A greatly enfeebled.
"Ae ‘be one ger , i
tire e mus a aaa *
€a and peecase it cit not be us efal i in pyarooming. the maseansing 2 re-
sistance which often o opposes their reduction, and, 5 w nether it may n
foek the fatal rigors of spasm even in tetanns itsell
34 Griswold on Submarine Explosion.
employs, and although this fluid is liable to decompose, and
to become weak, especially by careless keeping, these vi-
als appear to have arrived in good order; the acid remains
colourless, whereas it is coloured if decomposed. t was
made in Paris, by M. Robiquet.
Dr. Alfred S. Monson, upon whose skill and care every
degree of reliance may be placed, will supply practitioners
with this acid, pagina od by him corner of York an
Elm streets, New-H
. The vials shidue be kept lowe stopped and in a
dark and cool place ; they should be opened as little as
possible, should be labelled poison, and the undiluted liquid
y no means tasted; they should be ae t where none but
discreet persons can have access to them
entlemen who use the prussic acid are invited to trans-
mit their reports of its effects for publication in this Journal ;
they shall be published either in extenso, oF by abstract, and
analysis as may appear best.
Piyrsic’, MECHANTES: CHEMISTRY: AND THE ARTS.
pe ee SUBMARINE NAVIGATION.
— Vill. Deictiption: of a Machine, savented sat cou-
structed by Davin ten ater @ “native of Saybrook, at
American army yt destroy some of the. British ships then
lying at New- by Cuarrzs Gris
won, Esq.
ro PROFESSOR SILLIMAN,
. ~ Lysiz, Conn. Feb. ast. 1820.
Sir,
Tri is to be presumed ‘that every person who has sat any
attention to the mechanical inventions of this country, oF
Griswold on Submarine Explosion. 95
has looked over the history of her revolutionary war, has
heard of the machine invented by David Bushnell, for sub-
marine navigation, and the destruction of hostile e shipping.
I have thought that a correct and full account of that novel
and original invention, would not be unacceptable to
public, and particularly to those devoted to the poronit of
science and the arts.
If the idea of submarine warfare had ever oceurred to
any one, before the epoch of Bushnell’s invention, yet it
may be safely stated, that a ideas but his own ever came
to any practical results, » To him, I believe, the whole merit
of this invention is unanimously agreed to belong.
ut such an account as I have mentioned, must derive
an additional value, and an ots ees inte: rest from ‘aes ;
that all the information the follow
as been received from the ‘only person in n existence DOs-
sessed of that information, and who was the very same that
first embarked in this novel and perilous navigation. oe ae
Mr. Ezra Lee, first a sergeant and afterwards an e
in the revolutionary army, a Fae a worthy, and elder-
ly citizen of this town, is the person to whom I have allu-
ded ; to him was committed the ar essay for destroying a
hostile ship by submarine pono pues upon his state-
ments an implicit reliance may be
Considering Bushnell’s machine as vets first of its kind,
[ think it will be pronounced to be remarkably complete
throughout in its construction, and that such an invention
furnishes evidence of those resources ‘nde creative powers,
which must rank him as a mechanical conte of the. first
order.
[ shall first attend to a description of this machine, and
afterwards to a relation of the enterprise in it by sergeant
e; confining myself in oon ease strictly to the facts
with which he has paren
Yours, &c
CHARLES GRISWOLD.
Bushneli’s saline was composed of several pieces of
large oak timber, scooped out and fitted together, and its
shape my informer compares to that of a round clam. It
was bound around thoroughly with iron bands, the seams
oe
were corked, and the whole was smeared over with tar, se
96 Griswold on Submarine Explosion.
as to prevent the possibility of the admission of water to
the inside.
_ It was of a capacity to contain one engineer, who might
stand or sit, and enjoy sufficient elbow room for its proper
management.
The ms or weed was made of a metallic composition,
exactly suited to its body, so as to be water-tight; this
opened upon hinges, and formed the entrance to the ma-
chine. Six small pieces of thick glass were inserted in this
head, for the admission of light: in a clear day and clear
sea-water, says my informer, he could see to read at the
depth of three fathoms. To keep it upright and properly
balanced, seven hundred pounds of lead were fastened to
its bottom, two hundred pounds of which were so contrived
as to be ae at any moment, to increase the buoy-
ancy of the machin
But to enable Bie navigator when under water, to rise or
sink at pleasure, there were two forcing pumps, by which
water could be pressed out at the bottom; and Iso a
spring, = applying the foot to which, a passage was Pine diecin}
for the admission of water. If the pumps should. get de-
— snake nets “to: lettng:off the ‘lead ballast
ne Se nat eaeied = a yeuibortt the tiller of which
passed through the back of the machine at a water joint,
and in one ide was fixed a small pocket compass, with
‘two pieces of shining wood, (sometimes called foxfire,)
crossed upon its north point, and a single piece upon th
last point. In the night, when no light entered through the
head, this compass thus lighted, was all that served to guise
the helmsman in his course.
The ingenious inventor also provided a method for de-
termining the depth of water at which the machine might
at any time be. This was achieved by means of a glass
tube, twelve inches in length, and about four in diameter,
which was also attached to the side of the machine : this
tube enclosed a piece of cork, that rose with the descent
of the machine, and fell with its ascent, and one inch rise
of the cork denoted a depth of about one fathom. ‘The
principle upon which such a result was produced, and also
ine mechanical contrivance of this tube, ae rast
Griswold on Submarine Explosion. 97
the observation of Mr. Lee, amidst the hurry and constant
anxiety attendant upon such a perilous navigation.
ut not the least ingenious of this curious machine,
was that by which the horizontal motion was communicated
to it. This object was effected by means of two oars or
paddles, formed precisely like the arms of a wind-tnill,
which revolved perpendicularly upon an axletree that pro-
jected in front ; this axletree passed into the machine at a
Water joint, and was furnished with a crank, by which it
was turned: the navigator being seated inside, with one
‘ hand laboured at the crank, and with the other steered by
the tiller.
The effect of paddles so constructed, and turned in the
manner stated, by propelling or rather drawing a body after
them under water, will readily occur to any one wi
ex planation.
‘These paddles were but twelve inches long, and about
four wide. ‘T'wo smaller paddles of the same description,
also projected near the head, provided with a crank inside,
by which the ascent of the machine could be assisted.
By vigorous turning of the crank, says my informer, the
machine could be propelled at the rate of about three miles
an hour in still water. When beyond the reach of danger,
er observation of an enemy, the machine was suffered to
float with its head just rising from the water’s surface, and
while in this situation, air was constantly admitted through
three small orifices in the head, which were closed when a
descent was commenced.
secured by iron bands, &c. One hundred and_ thirty
pounds of gun powder, a clock, and a gun lock, provided
with a good flint that would not miss fire, were the apparatus
which it enclosed. This magazine was attached to the
clock, whilst its other end entered the machine. This
serew could be withdrawn from the magazine, by which
Vou. IL.....No. 1. 13
98 Griswold on Submarine Explosion.
the latter was immediately detached, and the clock com-
menced going. ‘The clock was set for running twenty or
thirty minutes, at the end of which time, the lock struck,
and fired the powder, and in the mean time the adventurer
effected his escape.
t the most difficult point of all to be gained, was to
fasten this magazine to the bottom of a ship. Here a diffi-
culty arose, which, and which alone, as will appear in the
ensuing narrative, defeated the successful operations of this
warlike apparatus
Mr. Bushnell’s contrivance was this—A very sharp iron
screw was made to pass out from the top of the machine,
communicating inside by a water jours ; it was provided
with a crank at its Jower end, by which the engineer was
io force it into the ship’s bottom : this screw was next to
be disengaged from the machine, and left adhering to the
ship’s bottom. A line leading from this screw to the maga-
zine, mes.) the latter in its cesmuee neon for blowing up
the vesse
I shall now piscued to the count of the first attempt
that was made to destroy a ship of w the facts o
which, as os stated, Ivreceived Som. the bold adven-
turer himse
It was in “the saci of August, 1776, when Admiral
Howe lay with a formidable British fleet in New-York bay
a little above the Narrows, and a numerous British force
upon Staten Island, commanded by General Howe, threat-
ened annihilation io the troops under Washington, that Mr.
Bushnell requested General Parsons of the American army,
to furnish him with two or three men to learn the naviga-
tion of his new machine, with a view of destroying some |
the enemy's am J ng.
ons immediately sent for Lee, then a sergeant,
me two cant who had offered their services to go on
board of a fire ship ; and on Bushnell’s request being made
known to them, they enlisted themselves under him for
this novel piece of service. e party went up into Long
{sland Sound with the carctaney and made various experi-
ments with it in the cad harbors along shore, and after
having become pretty thoroughly acquainted with the mo de
of navigating it, they returned through tle Sound; but dur-
Griswold on Submarine Explosion. 99
ing their absence, the enemy had got possession of Long-
Island and Governor’s-Island. They therefore had the
machine conveyed by land across from New-Rochelle to
the Hudson river, and afterwards arrived maak it at New-
ork.
The British fleet now lay to the north of Staten-Island,
with a large number of transports, and were the objects
against which this new mode of warfare was destined to act;
the first serene night was fixed upon for the execution of
this perilous enterprise, and sergeant ee was to be the
engineer. After the lapse of a few days, a favorable night
arrived, and at I1 o’clock, a party embarked in two or three
whale boats, with Bushnell’s machine in tow. They rowed
down as near the fleet as they dared, when sergeant Lee
entered the machine, was cast off, and the boats ctnmned:
Lee now found the ebb tide rather too strong, and before
he was aware, had drifted him down past the men.of war;
he however immediately got the machine about, and b
hard labour at the crank for the space of five glasses by
the ship’s bells, or two anda half hours, he arrived under
the stern of one of the ships at about slack water. Day
had now dawned, and by the light of the moon he could
see the people on board, and heard their conversation.
This was the moment for diving : he accordingly closed up
overhead, let in water, and descended under the ship’s bot-
tom.
He now applied the screw, and did all in his power to
make it enter, but owing probably in part to the ship’s cop-
per, and the want of an adequate pressure, to enable the
screw to get a hold upon the bottom, his attempis all failed;
at each essay the machine rebounded from aa ship’s bot-
tom, not having sufficient power to resist the impulse thus
given to it.*
He next paddled along to a different part of her bottom,
but in this manceuvre he made a deviation, and instantly
arose to the water’s voila on the east side of the ship,
9h to vusia pisanene light of the morning, and in im-
‘
100 Griswold on Submarine Explosion.
minent hazard of being discovered. He immediately made
- another descent, with a view of making one more trial, but
the fast approach of day, which would expose him to the
enemy’s boats, and render his escape difficult, if not impos-
sible, deterred him; and he concluded that the best gene-
ralship would be to commence an immediate retreat.
He now had before him a distance of more than four
miles to traverse, but the tide was favourable. At Gover~
nor’s-Island great danger awaited him, for his compass
having got out of order, he was under the necessity of look-
ing out from the top of the machine very frequently to
prin ae his Seti, and at best made a very irregular zig-
zag tra
The soldiers at Rorennee s-Island espied the machine,
and curiosity drew several hundreds upon the parapet to
watch its motions. At last a party came down to the beach,
shoved off a barge, and rowed towards it. At that moment
sergeant Lee thought he saw his certain destruction, and as
a last act of defence, let go the cy Beas expecting that
they would seize that lig pie Ae oer tid be blown
to atoms together a
Providence however otherwise directed it: the emy,
after approaching within fifty or sixty yards of the tee
and seeing the magazine detached, began “9 apes a
yankee trick, took alarm and retu turned to the is
Approaching the city, he soon made a 2 8 the boats
came to him and brought him safe and sound to the shore.
The magazine in the mean time had drifted past Gover-
nor’s-Island into the East river, where it exploded wi
tremendous violence, throwing lar; nee e columns of water and
ieces of wood that composed it high into the air. Gen.
rata with many other officers, stood on the shore spec-
tators of this explosion.
In a few days the American army evacuated New-York,
and the machine was takea up the North river. Another
attempt was afterwards made by Lee upon a frigate that
lay opposite Bloomingdale : his object now was to fasten
the magazine to the stern of the ship, close at the water’s
edge. But while attempting this, the watch discovered
him, raised an alarm, and compelled him to abandon his
enterprise. He then sn to get under the frigate’s
bottom, but in this he failed, having —— too deep-
This terminated his experiments.
. of
ihe
+. 2
Loolittles Figt res
i
WW Laughton Ded.
SULLIVAN'S
SrRAM 1B Mw BOAT
4
4
NRISS celviteSt-
i
e
Doolittle on the Steam Engine. 101
Art. IX. Remarks on “the neucnarnenay Steam Engine of
Morey, by Mr. Isaac Doourrr
YO THE EDITOR OF THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE, &c.
Paris, 26th March, 1819.
Dear Sir,
And first it may be piopers to state, that the intensity or
elastic force of the steam is altogether unimportant in the
point of view in which I shall consider it; it is indifferent
whether it be fifteen pounds or five hundred to the inch
area; as I shall only examine what portion of the force ap-
plied to give the alternating motion to the piston is actually
employed in producing the rotary movement of the cylin-
der, and what portion is lost to all useful purposes.
The enclosed diagram, Fig. L* is a vertical section of the
machine, (as I understand it from the drawings) perpen-
dicularly to the axes of rotatio
he portion of the force which is employed in producing
a rotary movement varies at every instant with the angle of
its application, and consequently has a maximum and a min-
imum. Its effect also, constantly varies with a perpetually
varying lever at the extremity of which it is applied, the
effect has therefore also a maximum and a minimum. ese
last are the only points at which it would be necessary to
examine the machine in order to appreciate its comparative
merits; but the points of maximum, depending on the two
above causes, are not easily determined without having re-
e figures referred to by Mr. — will be mee on one of the
: =*Phe
plates iMustrating Mr. Sullivan’s Steam B
*
102 Doolittle on the Steam Engine.
eource to fluxions, with which I must own Iam not sufii-
ciently conversant, and if I were, I should perhaps prefer
employing a mechanical or graphic solution, because I be-
oe greater number of persons will be able to understand
"The method I employ, though not mathematically
want is nevertheless sufficiently so for ilbvicantibat purpo-
CSi52)> :
The cylinder in its revolutions describes a circle A. B.
A’. B’. Fig. I. about the center c. through which —
the piston rod must continually pass, whatever may be t
position of the cylinder in the circle ; and the point of j nak
tion of the pitman with the cross piece of the piston rod,
describes, in the same time, the circle x. r. x’. (whose ra-
dius is equal to the length of the pitman) about the center
o. the distance between “the two centers is equal to half the
length of the stroke of the piston.
When the cylinder, in its revolution arrives in A. or in A’.
the two centres are in a line with its axis, and the while
force employed either to raise or depress the piston, is en-
tirely lost, no one of it being employed to turn the machine
—these points, in the common engine, working with a crank
and fly wheel, are called the dead points. The actuating
force is here =o
If, about the gentive e., and with a radius equal to half a
stroke of the — we describe a circle o. n. n’. (fig.
3.) and circumference into,any number of on
parts, and if we des lines to represent the piston rod in its
several positions, always passing through the centre of this
circle, and the divisions of its circumference continuing them
when necessary, until they strike the circumference of the
circle r. - f. described by the extremity of the pitman, that
point will be the point of junction of the pitman with the
piston rod; and a line drawn from the center of the latter
circle to that point will represent the position of the pitman
ne half of the circle, (taken in a line with the dead
points) being an — representation of the other half, it is
unnecessary to occupy ourselves with a larger portion; 1,
then we divide the semicircle o. n’. p. into eight equal ee
and find the quantity of force utilized at each of the
points, we shall nineee a result sufficiently exact for our
purpose.
pe NNN
Doolittle on the Steam Engine. 103
If we suppose the cylinder arrived in E. (fig. 2.) or in
E’, (fig. 3.) and if, from any scale of equal parts, we set off,
from the point a@., on the line representing the piston rod, a
distance a. b. equal to two hundred, and consider this as
the force constantly applied to drive the piston in the cylin-
der, this force will resolve itself into two forces ; the one, a.
e. parallel to the position of the pitman, which of course is
entirely lost, being employed in fruitless endeavours to re-
move the center piece, the other, a. m. in a line tangent to
the circle r. d. f, at the point of contact, a.—by completing
the parallelogram a. e. b. m. of which the primitive force a.
b. is the diagonal, we have the measure of the forces re-
spectively. i pisos?
But the force a. m. is oblique to the direction of the
movement of the machine, and is therefore again decom-
posed, the two forces resulting from this second decompo-
sition, act, the one a. t. ina line parallel to the piston rod,
and the other a. s. in the direction of the tangent to a circle
whose radius is equal to that portion of the piston rod, com-
prised between its junction with the pitman and the center
c. of rotation, and parting from the point of junction ;—By
completing the parallelogram a. s. m. t. of which a. m. is the
diagonal, the side a. t. parallel to the piston rod, is the meas-
ure of the force lost in the second decomposition, and the
side a. s. represents the force virtually employed in this
point in turning the machine. This force measured by the
same scale of equal parts gives sixty-two...
But it will at once be seen that the lever c. a. in fig. 2. is
much longer than the lever c. a. in fig. 3. therefore, if the
forces were equal, the effects must be different, in inverse
proportion to the length of the levers. And, to com
the effect of this machine to that of one working in the or-
dinary way, we must reduce all the forces to a length of
lever equal to that where they could be applied if the cylin-
der stood still and turned the crank, instead of turning itself
around it=this lever is represented by the distance between
the centre ¢ of rotation and the circumference of the circle
Nn. 0. 1’.
the extremity of long lever c. a. is to length of short lever ¢.
h. as length of long lever ce. a. is to force at the extremity of
short lever c. h.—in this construction.
4104 Doolittle on the Steam Engine.
62:66::125:22%125— 133,
india figure 3. the force being applied at a lever much shori-
er than that to which it is to be reduced, its effect at the
extremity of the longer lever must be found by inverse pro-
p—thus—
portion—
66:62::11 72X11 —=10!say—=11.
Making similar constructions in the other points of divis-
ion, and reducing the respective forces to the same length
of lever, we have’ the following series.—
Forces at the points of application. | _ Forces reduced to an equal lever.
Y 62 - - - - 133
REAR APA ARES RET URES iy
124 - - - - 135
172 - mi io i - 52.
158 - - - - 32
176 - - - - 22
62 - - - 11
0 . 3 -
Dividing the sum by 8,the number of terms - 8 | 642
We have, for the mean force utilized —- - 68 for 200 applied.
er this caleulation, as in all which precede, to avoid
actions, where there were any, I have uniformly added an
unit in, their stead, in. nee? to give the machine “a fair
chance.
The mean: force G&:is applied tangentially to the reduced
circle, whose semi circumference is=207—the force that 1
have supposed applied is 200, and the stroke of the piston
is 13]. ‘Therefore force applied is ‘to force utilized ::200
131: 768 x 207 ob as: 28 14, nearly ; then ai
::100: 54
In the common orth the force applied is to the force
utilized ::100:78, nearly.. Therefore the effect of the new
pte erm is to the — of the ee wih, - ap-
weight, and multiply that weight sre the distance gone
through to find the quantity of force employed in giving
jail tceniiainan
t
4
;
'
Doolittle on the Steam Engine. 105
motion to the machine, we have force expended in describ-
ing the arc B’AB=force employed in describing the arc
8; AH; —Therefore, besides the continual variation in
the intensity of the force utilized, we find that a much greater
portion of the force required fora revolution is spent in de-
scribing the semicircle f. A. g. than in describing the semi-
circle g. A’. f.—and we must not forget that this is the por-
tion of the revolution where the effect is greatest in propor-
tion to the force employed ; therefore if the motion of the
piston in the cylinder be uniform, the motion of He cylin-
der in its revolutions must be irregular and vice vers
Add to this, that with the velocity which Mr. ‘Sullivan
proposes giving to this machine, the influence of the centri-
fugal force ought to be taken into consideration—this force
also not only varies with the dimensions of the machine and
the weight of the piston, but is different at every instant, in
the same machine, increasing as the piston recedes from the
centre, and diminishing as it approaches; augmenting the
effect of the machine in the first instance and aaaceiak
it in the latter ; more force is therefore developed in going
from A through B to A’, than in going from A’ through B’ to
A=another cause of irregularity 1 in its movements, to coun-
teract these effects the machine should be made very a
to serve as a fly wheel.
I have hitherto considered this engine without Siatee
to its friction ; this, in certain points of its revolution, must
be immensely greater than in the old engine, as will appear
evident to the most superficial observer, on a simple inspec-
tion of its construction.
These are some of the imperfections which this engine
possesses in addition to all those of the common one, and
can discover nothing in its favour but novelty. %
There is no doubt but it will turn, if it be not too much
loaded, and its movements wil] probably produce an agree-
able effect, but I do not apprehend that Oliver Evans has
any thing to fear from its rivality.
You are at liberty to make what use you please of this
communication.
I am, sir, very respectfully,
t, serv
I. DOOLITTLE.
4
&
Vor. IL.....No. 1
106 Sullivan on the peer ia: Engine.
Arr. X. Mr. Surtivan on the Revobiinji Engine ; in re-
ply to Mr. Dootirrus.*
TO PROFESSOR SILLIMAN.
Sir,
7 WAS so yeas hdpaty of the inadequacy of my descrip-
tion of Morey’s Steam Engine in your second number, that ~
I had yee os Nine of eiforive a supplement, when i
gave an opp portunity of reading the remarks o
Doolittle, which [ presume you will insert, mre this
further explanation.
The invention was then quite in its infancy, and your
American readers will require no apology for occupying a
page of your Journal once more, with a subject perhaps in-
teresting only as it relates to the developement of the re-
sources of our country: this form of the yan de pe-
culiarly adapted to canals and other inland na
Referring to the annexed plate and ea neebinoed I will
pie attempt to suse the remarks of your correspon-
“The objection ‘that a part of the force is lost in producing
a rotary motion, applies, I think with equal propriety to
all engines communicating by the intervention of the crank
—as in all of them it must be considered as a varying lever.
By loss of force must be meant the difference between the
effect j it would produce were its action always at right an-
gles to the crank, and its indirect action, as it revolves.
Professor Playfair estimates this difference as 7 to 11—
at is, a rota ay motion is produced by the crank at the
expense of ;‘ths of the power which the engine would have,
could i it be baerted directly upon its object, or load. This
mate of loss relates to atmospheric engines.
Nospithmanding this however, it was Considered a a great
improvement when Mr. Watt introduced the crank. It gave
the steam engine to many more useful purposes ; though
mark.—The temporary suspension of the Journal offered mean oppor-
tunity of submitting Mr poreks 7 s remarks to Mr. Sullivag’s perusal, which .
gives these gentlemen the mutual advan oeauel having “age pres —
together, instead of oom Sati in different numbers. —
———— EE ——
oft
Figit
VK LS Secdyn Seago.
og OS ek Ee i
a ARS NOMEN I
WL aughton’ De.
Sullivan on the Revolving Engine... 8
some part of the force, was undoubtedly lost at every stroke,
in giving motion to the balance w eel necessary to equalize
the movement. Whether the ions of force by a-crank is
actual or theoretical, may be a question. It is not one how-
ever which applies to this engine so much as to others, be-
~~ it is moved by very elastic steam always ig
or both of the two cylinders which comp
a
Your correspondent deems this unimportant to ake ques-
tion he raises,—which may answer more hy to
— readers, od a — in point, from Dr. Young’s Lec-
gressive motion of is rod will be ae accelerated and
retarded, and for a considerable space of the revolution
force exerted will be nearly uniform ; but if we dhompt to
communicate at once to the rod its whole velocity in. each
direction, as has sometimes been done, the motion would
become extremely oe and the machinery would sa
destroyed by the st
* On the other hand it must be observed, that force ap-
plied to the machinery, may in general be divided into two
forces ; the one employed in opposing the force, so as to
produce an equilibrium only, and the other in generating
momentum.
e With respect to the first portion, a single crank has the
inconvenience of changing continually the mechanical ad-
vantage of the machine; with respect to the second, its
motion in the second quarter of its revolution is accelerated,
instead of being retarded by the inertia, w which this portion
of the force is intended to overcome ; and from the combi-
nation of these causes, the motion must necessarily be ren-
dered ve ener
s may however be poms & removed by em-
slope hart cranks in pairs, one ley m being fixed so
as to sig aright angle with the o
Here Dr. Young does not seem is or this supposable
decision of force ‘ lost to all useful purposes,” but incident to
the nature of machinery—or remediable on the same prin-
ciple by which ste as a power, is applied by the double
revolving engine. Ww)
vatever deduction is to be made then _
acc :
108 Sullivan on the Revolving Engine.
from the original power, arises from the friction of the ma-
_ chine only—which point we will consider after a moment’s
attention to the nature of force.
Force is known and measured only by its effects.
If a machine is so constructed as to render gravitation, at-
mospheric pressure, or the expansion of elastic fluids, ope-
rative, continually ; then the machine will be more or less
perfect, as it consumes on itself, the power from these sour-
ces, in transmitting it to its object.
as in estimating these sources of power, time is a ne-
cessary circumstance; the constant transmission of the power
by the machine, will enter into the estimate of its quality.
And if, as in the common steam engine, the atmospheric
pressure is not constant, or if being so, the manner of convey-
ing it is not t e same, it may be said to be a loss of
power only because ind is a loss of tame, in which, were the
machine otherwise constructed, the power might have been
prem
Your correspondent cides the mind by the terms in
which tes states, that ‘‘ he proposes to examine what portion
of the force applied to give the alternating motion of the
piston is actually employed in producing the rotary move-
— of — cylinder, and what portion zs lost to all useful
ate he thinks, ‘‘ when the piston is in a line with the
iwo centres,” (or is proped for the moment, by the fixed
crank) “ that the whole force employed to raise or depress
los:
—— is entirely lost.
e have anticipated the first point by reference to Young;
—and need only add, that it is unnecessary to investigate
what is an already renewed and established rule, that the
difference of advantage between a force acting constantly at
right angles with the crank—and obliquely at a varyin
angle as usual, is as 7 to 11.
As to the second, it may be said there could be no power
in question, but through the intervention of the machine,
and if the operation of the machine is suspended in the po-
sition a there can be no power to loose—but your
correspondent carries his idea of the practical effect of the
principle of resolution of forces to an extent, that ator
with some received principles of mechanics e assu
asa given quantity 200. “This force will “resolve itself
a Ase pea er
Sullivan on the Revolving Engine. 108
(equally) into two forces; the one parallel to the position
of the pitman, which of course is entirely lost, being em-
ployed in fruitless endeavours to remove the centre piece.”
en two forces meet at an angle, they produce a third,
nearly equal to both in the diagonal of a parallelogram, pro-
duced from the two lines of their direction—and yet scarcely
pa is lost. eM
e know too from the highest authority, “ that if any
body draws or presses another, it is itself as much drawn or
ressed :” that “all forces act reciprocally,” that ‘ action
and reaction are equal”—but it is not thence concluded in
theory—and surely it would be contrary to practice to say,
that any of the forceis lost.
When a boat is moved by oars, the force exerted on the
extremity of the oar, reacts upon the boat.—
When a lever is applied to raise a weight, the whole force
reacts from the fulerum.— : eves
hen a gun is fired, the elastic air acts on the bottom
and sides of the chamber, which do not consume the force,
but react upon the ball.
And in like manner the force derived from the steam (in
this case) is returned from the fixed centre piece, as a basis,
and through the intervention of the pitman gives revolution
to the engine.
An unqualified objection is made to this engine, on the
score of friction. It is said, “ the friction of this engine
will appear evident to the most superficial observer, to be
immensely greater than in the old engine.”
‘This manner of expression and of judgment appears to
be equally unphilosophical. It supposes the friction of a
machine greater, as it may seem to such an observer com-
icate. It seems to leave out of the question the estab-
ished law of mechanics, that “ friction is simply propor-
tional to the weight or pressure, that brings the substances
concerned into contact, independently of the magnitude of
their forces,—and that friction is a uniformly retarding
force.”
On these principles an engine of equal power, that is not
more than a third as heavy as others, must have the advan-
tage of this difference in point of friction, the work and ad-
justment being equally perfect. It cannot be denied that «
good adaptation of parts, makes a great difference mm ma-
110 Sullivan on the Revolving Engine.
chines, and that ee substances interposed lessen the
friction essentially. All these things being equal, the law
above stated applies, nor is ~~ any particular portion in
which it is peculiarly great. The most disadvantageous
moment is, when the cokes has reached the end of the
stroke, and starts in the other direction : but it starts gently,
and when in the other cylinder, the power to help it, is
greatest—the substances in contact are a polished surface of
iron and oiled hempen packing ; there cannot be much at-
trition between these; every other part of the pases is
lubricated, and moves always the same way.
Ro alves seem the most subject to this
objection at first view. Here are two surfaces moving up-
on each other, one of iron the other of brass, both perfect-
ly polished, and occasionally oiled; they are kept to-
gether by springs, elastic enough to preserve the contact ;
for the tendency is to separate ; there is little or no weight or
pressure to cause friction between them and it cannot possi-
bly be
You hens witnessed the operation of a large engine of
this kind ; and must recollect with ~~ little force of steam
it moved.
I believe nothing in mechanics is more difficult to esti-
mate than friction, what is ever incident to machinery ; but
it should not be confounded with the obstacles to be over-
come in the imperfections of work as well as of plan.
Its unavoidable existence however, shews the capeeeny
of reducing the steam engine to as light a construction as
possible, as well as to get rid of those massive soeaaiers
which waste the original power on their own movements.
Experience is our surest guide in mechanics, and perhaps
the late Mr. Evans’ heirs may have nothing to fear from
what Mr. Doolittle calls the rivality of Morey’s invention.
But I can assure him of the fact, that the same boilers which
one boat, now — to a small single revolving engine, can
tow four boats faster than that one was carried and ¢
sume not half so past fuel.
. Young justly observes that the beauty of a contrivance.
and the skill of the contriver depend, principally, on the sim-
plicity of the means, and the safety, and durability of the me-
Sullivan on the Revolving Engine. iii
sufficiently free from objection.
he combination however, of two cylinders at right an-
gles, has the same effect. 1ey produce a continuity of
the power, whatever that is; and enable the engine to
work with equable motion, without a balance wheel, objec-
tionable in navigation on account of its weight, as well as
eats i
know that it has heretofore been done in a form or manner
ost. - ;
We are enabled by this form of the engine to give the
power of steam to canal navigation, and shallow inland wa-
ters; to apply the power directly to the axis of the water
wheel of the boat which is thus made the connecting axis of
the engine. No form of the Steam Boat can be more sim-
pie.
The boats for this purpose have a peculiar form, which
gives a recess or chamber at the stern, for the play of the
wheel, or crank paddles of a peculiar construction, so that
nothing encumbers the sides.
The boilers when the boat is large, stand on or above
the deck, covered from the air and weather. The whole
body of the vessel being unincumbered and free for the use
of loading or of passengers. = ~ ,
n important saving of expense may be made in conse-
quence of the reduced size of the machine ; for its complete
adaptation to the use of high steam admits of a great power, —
thus exerted in a small compass. Expense is also saved in
the manner of attaching the engine to the boat or vessel, so
as not to depend on the stiffness or firmness of the bottom ;
the center of reaction being the centre of the engine.
When this kind of engine shall be applied to steam bat-
teries, it will be found capable of propelling them perhaps
with more than usual velocity, and at much less expense :
112 Sullivan on the Revolving Engine.
but its great utility will be found in facilitating water car-
riage on those rivers, which are at times shallow, and those
which are rendered more extensively navigable by canals
around their falls
am, very respectfully, — &e.
Y . ry J. L. SULLIVAN.
Boston, October, 1819.
Py In the Hartford Boat, we used the Tar or Gas
fire with good effect : but [ am not able to state yet, precise-
ly the proportion of saving. The men about the engine
— thought it equal to as much again wood as they
sed.
“When I have made some decisive trials I shall communi-
cate the result.
Remark. We understand that Mr. Sullivan and Mr. Mo-
rey have in the investigation of the economy of the liquid
fuel of steam engines, (or tar and steam fire,) made some
discoveries and improvements which bid fair to be very use-
ful and economical. They are in practice ina steam en-
gine which carries the recently invented self directing lathe,
which makes ships’-blocks, lasts and other irregularly form- -
ed articles.
Explanation of the plates referred to in the preceding communi-
cation.
Index to the annexed plate of the Revolving Steam Engine.
aaa Boilers
bb Cylinders
ce Connterpese, {not preset necessary as the cylinders
unte er.)
coun
dd Frames holding the cylinders, &e.
ee Axes on which the frames rotate,
ff Fixed cranks or centers,
gg The pitman or bar,
hh Cross —
ii The Pisto
ok ane Ribs isch preserve the parallel movement of the
11 The yotat valve
mm The fixed cinhtehyiati to the rotary valve,
Sullivan on the Revolving Engine. 113
nn ‘The springs which keep the valves together
oo ©The a legs valve box and pipes leading steam: to the cyt
pp Pipe leading from the cylinders,
rr The intermediate sha
s The clutch box, to re the shaft and wheel,
t The clatch box lev
uu Cog wheels efeneeicean motion—the reverse of this
Peon is found i in 1 experience preferable,
ww The meet
oUF he aati es,
we The gear and nine for the = supply pump.
ase . The Saale or 5 face of the valves shewing the goons, ee
_ The cross pipes a the.
back motion,
4. Wheels’ with er es
“placed on its head.
> cia a pedi of'a Boat the boilers above se (see note b)
Ph. re The stern view of the revolvi Pa pp
ial 3. Outline of the apparatus asngsiod to the stern,
ig 10». Profile of the stern with paddles.
Note a By proportioning the revolutions of the engine to the
motien of the. dies or wheels so that the engine will ease
move moderately and the wheels fast ; we are able when e]
has Speed, either from the wind or steam, to superadd ny power of
this. to her acquired momentum, so that the maximum of
effeet may be attained. If the engine | ert too fas
the pe Ames they may be made to take more hold of the water—
Ness ge ner eee ror ae ey ae
a-part from the loading and passengers as possible, the —
invented fue will permit 62 arrangements very favourable to the
economy of reom.
Note c. The advantages Ag a double engine are perhaps very
important in boats of the largest class, but a single engine applied
to the stern propellers, is the most simple and lightest form of t
engine ; and is best adapted to o those rivers of fre —— which
flow —e land, and ie eile i r chann
No. 1. 1
114 Gibbs on Dry Roi.
alternately close in with one pia or the other, as their winding
course directs the force of the current. A steam — therefore
which has no external wheels or ene ey will be less exposed to
accidents from the shore, the trees upon it, or from drift wood.
FOR THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE.
Arr. XI. Observations on the Dry Rot, by Col. Gzorce
, ees: , , ‘
Tur Jate extraordinary debsy of Pitnbér, by a disease,
termed the dry rot, in the commercial and military marine ©
in Europe, has excited much attention, and called forth ma-
ny schemes for prevention or cure. But I have not been
fortunate enough to meet with any account of its cause, or
any proposal for a remedy, which could satisfy me, still less
e Gentlemen skilled in naval affairs.
It appears, karat — disease affects w ood, whether dry of
moist, though more in the latter case : "aoe t has become
more common within go years, and since tint time large
ships have been discovered to be entirely rotten on the
then” before the preparations were made for launching
t
‘Steaming the Timber has been tried in America, and
Seed 3 injurious ; oil and paint are ruinous; and many oth-
er operations have been recommended, some of which were
found i injurious, others ineffectual, others too costly for tri-
al. All the ingenuity of the English mechanics seems ta
_ have been employed in scheeming and failing; much mo--
ney, and. some lives, have been lost i in these ore sory :
‘Rot has been ascribed to the use of green
bans wood not sufficiently seasoned or docked ; ‘bat, ;
docking timber is, to a considerable extent, impor-
tant, yet it is found that this remedy is by no means sure,
as ships with which this precaution, as formerly, has pe
tried, have. been found at times subject to the dry rot;
that in spite of every oe large vessels in Europe do bik
last half as long as for
In the United States this gieeacee is by no means as com-
mon, although it sragually becomes more so. Our mer-
ee TF
Gibbs on Dry Rot. 15
chant ships are at times troubled with it. Our ships of war
being built of live oak, cedar, and locust, are less exposed
to this evil. The live oak appears to be almost indistructi-
ble, except perhaps by its contact with other species of
wood, the juices of which, as in treenails,* may injure it.—
But the time is not far distant, when we must bewail this ca-
lamity, or discover some preventive. :
e same evil attends the construction of modern built
ises. The timbers of the roof of Westminster-Hall have
been in place six hundred years, and I have examined in
S$ country some which were placed one hundred and fifty
years ago, and are seemingly uncorrupted and incorruptible.
But no architect now would calculate on a durability of half
the latter term. I have been informed that some of the
floors in the new City-Hall, in New-York, though finished
} Gee only six years, have been removed on account of the
TY 80-25 4% pe acre ake : Cres
Considering these and other facts before the public, I
_ have been led to believe, that the dry rot is owi the
nature of the wood, rather than to the deficiency of ordina-
ry preparation. .
~The wood of a tree consists of the heart and the albur-
mum, or sap wood which forms the external concentric
Layers. This last is the vehicle of the sap. In young
trees, it extends to the centre, but as the tree grows, the
heart becomes firm, and ceases to circulate the sap, and
this process continues during the life of the tree. In aged
trees the. sap wood forms only a small part of the timber,
till at length a process similar to ossification in the o)
of animals takes place, and the tree dies for want of nourish-
-
ment. ie
: The durability of heart, and the pernicious effeets of sap
wood, are well known ; but as timber bears a high price,
workmen content themselves with taking off the coloured
sap wood, without regarding the remaining part in the tim-
ber. An oak tree, at the age of eighty years, is generally
ofa size fitted for timber for large vessels. But if we com-
pare this tree to one of the same size, but two hundred
years old, we shall find the real proportion of sap wood and
heart very different in the two specimens. Now if we con-
*7 5? so aced by the shi t Editi
Trunnels ? 50 y 1 by the ship carper Editor
sider the enormous consumption of wood during the. last
century, in large and small vessels, in houses, and in all the
ohyiots which add to the comforts of society, both in Eu-
rope and America, we may justly suppose that few old
oaks can be supplied in Europe, and that the number: ain
Ametica is continually diminishing.
We are therefore justified in believing, that the dry rot
in vessels and houses, in its present extension, is owing to
the use of young timber, to which architects have had re-
cource, in consequence of the destruction of the old forests.
It is perhaps impossible to prevent the danger, but it _
be in our power to guard ina great measure against 1
And it is of so much importance, that I feel less in
in offering my opinion on the subject.
he object of every process for the preservation of tim-
ber, must be to extract the water of the sap, and to destroy
the absorbent power of the wood, and chiefly of the sap
vessels. The different uses for which the timber is intend-
ed, will of course cause some difference: i in the odes of its
treatment. For this purpose, I suggest with diffid ,
following se dA Neds aonie: one “a abicly nay probably
one | in ea situa
must hin be very limited.
Another method may perhaps be ied with success, and
without greater expense than many that have heen resorted
to without avail: | mean the use of smoke. This would
evaporate the. water of the sap, and carbonise in some
measure t ood.
A third See is the application of lime, aloes in sais
tion or as air slacked. The first would act like 1 muriate
chemical affinity, much more powerfully. It sates be ap-
plied to timber in most situations. I understand that when
the steam frigate was built in New-York, a quantity of pot-
ash was poured into the centre of each timber. [Between
_ Gibbs.on Dry Rot. in?
contiguous timbers? Ed.] Bat it is the surface, and not
the heart of the wood whieh first dec a ; ARhie alii like:
tion of lime, w pale render the wood prenelatny as el
as incombustible, and the woody fibre, like the animal fibre —
in leather, being saturated, would increase in strength and
durability.
af ' G. GIBBS.
Bacsesbenly August, 1819. fe
P. S.—Since the above was’ written, I have received
from Col. Perkins, of Boston, some “vahuable information: on
the subject, which I will briefly state:—Several ships built
at that port have been salted, or filled in between the tim-
bers with salt whilst on the stocks, and after a lapse of ten or
fifteen years the timbers have in every case, been found to be
perfectly sound. A large ship belonging to him, which had
been salted, (fourteen years old) required repairs, new decks,
and. new iron work. ‘Considering the age of the ship, it was
important to examine the frame in every part. The ceiling
was therefore ripped up, and a complete examination took
bd The result was, that the timber and plank were
ound completely sound in every part.
accompanied this gentleman on board of a salted ship
aging to him, and now in this port. The timbers were
not so. close as usual in frames of vessels, and the salt was
retained at different heights by wedges between the tim-
bers, so that the salt in settling should not leave any con-
siderable height vacant. It took five hundred bushels of
salt for this ship, of five hundred tons ; and two years after
being built, one hundred bushels were added to fill up —
the space of the salt dissolved.
ther instance has heen eg AE to me by an
intelligent officer of the Na Argus U.S. brig was
buil at Boston in 1802, ie bie aah. was salted as
e, repaired. at: the Navy-yar d in New-York in 1814,
and the tanbers found to be ag ie sound.
a Morey on Heat and Lighi.
I see no objection to this treatment, except fromthe great
weight above, say 28 tons ina ship of 300. The expense
is not material, but the iron work I should think would re-
quire Po i: oftener than in the other modes. Whether a
uld be created injurious to the health of the
crew of a lage ship of war, to its provisions and amunition,
or to the freight of saree goods, requires further expe-
rience.
: G. GIBBS.
Art. xi On Heat and Light ; by Mr. acne Monex*
of Orford, New-Hampshi
[First Communication.]
TO THE EDITOR OF THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE, &¢.
Sir, —
TF in the (olcwide -cepethinente ou Fe sie sith
remarks on the economy of burning water as an object of
fuel, any thing can be found worthy ofa place in your val-
> agave it will be avin more than 1 could reason-
Re Yours respectfully,
SM
Water, it is well nowt is ésthipiiNed of some ot sh bait
materials for producing light and heat; but when formed
by combustion, Pieces: which those materials did contain
appears to be parted with, or is neutralized, which va be
ie hoe to ee them again combustible.
shall that se: effected, S80 as to > render the gipengee
ey: nd useful ?
I presume that no apology will be wig om for giving Mr. Morey
algaiin communications entire. They are the practical results of an i-
gens Pathe d man _who as he ingenuously states, * hating no preten-
sio emical ot and Ij i or nO Re-
cess s-to o men of se pees has s ent much ‘of. his life in in “experiments.” §
results are ag cack val abl ns perhaps, in some cases, not the less 30,
ews bit
= haying — song without te Hithettch of precon ection thabrencd
mtn ma
Morey on Heat and Light. 119
Electricity will restore it—May not the same or other
materials, which furnish that electricity, at so very low a
temperature, furnish it directly to the water, at a higher,
though convenient one !
f water, in considerable quantities is thrown on oil or tar
if'a state of inflammation, the flame is greatly increased,
which evidently arises from some effect which the oil has,
in preparing the water for combustion.
f oil will, at or near the temperature at which it boils or
takes fire, produce the same effect, we have only to pass
the steam of boiling water, through oil at that temperature,
to furnish a — supply of fuel from the water—and, if
only the Hydrogen is in the first instance given out for use,
the Oxygen by mixing or combining with the oil, haeglon me
doubtedly render it a
ultimat et assist in making the combustion the more pateiet
Many experiments seem to justify these’ conclusions,
some of which will be mentioned.
If ever so small a drop of water, “rt into oil at a temper-
ature near boiling, it evidently is decomposed, for pom ex-
plosive report is sharper than that of gun powder.
If tar, containing a Pons tee proportion of water, is
dropped on brick or metal, at a temperature which will
rapidly evaporate sisi: the vapours burn with white. shoot-
ing streaks, much flame, and without smoke, while the wa-
ter lasts. Inflamed drops of tar, burn, while falling, with a
red flame and much smoke, but on reaching boiling water
the Sree instuntly disappears, and streaks of a white flame
te
in,) to be d erived ‘from the water.
So aia if steam a led over the ies of tar ina cylin-
der, and made. to force out a small stream of it, through a
pipe, into which a quantity of steam is also admitted, and
made to mix intimately with it, they burn with a great b
of flame and intense heat, and without smoke provided the
Proportions are well regulated.
ee ae - oe, in one aaah be made to boil, and the
om of another included cylinder,
busing notes of aipentite the steam, when let out un-
“der a moderate pressure, carries off with it a sufficient quan-
tity of the spirit to burn with a pleasant white flame, free
from smoke ; by increasing the pressure, the flame will be-
come in part or wholly blue. Here as in many other ex-
‘periments, I have noticed, that different coloured flames
may be produced from the same materials—are the products
of the combustion different :
If the steam of water, containing a small proportion of the
vapour of rosin be driven against iron, at or below a red
heat, it burns with a pleasant ‘blue flame, which will be ex-
tended some way back into the column of the vapour, inter-
mixed with innumerable sparks of very white flame, evi-
dently particles of the rosin.
If the vapours, when the proportion of rosin is very stall,
are made to pass between two plates of iron, at or near a
red heat, they can be inflamed on the opposite sides of
the plates, and will then, sometimes, burn with an entirely
blue flame, although the vapour cannot be inflamed, with-
: ‘oe the intervention of the
If the steam of boiling water, be led to the bottom and
passed up through tallow at a high ——o and then
cold water to condense the vapour, ned
; saihaee will float on the surface : and on apiied a flame, it
would sometimes, take fire, some distance before the flame
reached it, at rates times it would require, to be in contact
a few seconds, always beginning to burn with a blue flame,
and after the whole surface had been sometime enveloped
m flame, and the heat was such, against one side of the top
or rim of the vessel, as to cause the water below the oil on
that side to boil, and pass up through the oil, the flame op
— this side would be chiefly blue. Does not this show that the
_ steam was on this side decomposed in passing through the
- inflamed tallow, and from its sometimes taking fire on the
es eae: ofa “serge it would appear clearly that there was
a evaporation of hydrogen, from the tallow, and whe»
rap with the same sized wick, it appeared to. me to give
three or four times as much light as other tallow, whicl!
‘pointed out as I ary that it was rendenea in the —
mehiy combustible.
Morey on Heat and Laght. 12]
Ifa given quantity of strongly compressed boiling water
be suddenly discharged into about an equal quantity of oil
or rosin, at or near the boiling point, they explode to every
appearance as quickly and violently as gun powder, and
would without doubt, be as fatal. In this case, an immeise
quantity of highly inflammable gas or vapor is formed in
an instant, and apparently without any aid from caloric.—
{Except what is contained in the materials >—Ed.
‘When sulphuric acid is mixed with water, it is well
known that much heat is given out. If after standing until
the mixture becomes cold, iron filings are then added, much
hydrogen gas will continue to be formed for a long time, and
much sensible heat will be again given out. We must here
look, certaitly to some other gause, besides the caloric
given out by the oxygen, in passing from a liquid to a sol- _
id state. Ifa small quantity of spirits of turpentine be add-
ed, it burns with a very pleasant white flame, and without
smoke re again it is very evident the greater part of the
bulk of the flame is furnished from the water, which im this
case, is again directly reprepared for combustion, without
the least expence of caloric.
At present sir, I will not trouble you with an account of
any more experiments in which I have thought that water
was, and might be useful in producing light and heat; I will
only add one or two more, in which it is not concerned.
If to tallow or linseed oil a small quantity of salt-petre be
added, and the temperature raised to nearly that of the boil-
ing point, the salt petre appears to be dissolved and held in
solution by the oil; they will evaporate together, and the
mixture, or the vapour, will burn, wholly excluded from the
atmosphere. If science will point out a mode of retaining
le mixture when cold, I have thought —— it might be
more extensively useful than the safety /amp.
the flame continues white. If more still be added, the flame
lessens and becomes partly blue. By adding still more and
more, it will burn with a very small flame, entirely blue,
and with a singular musical sound. If still more be added,
the flame and every ray of light ceases, but that the com-
ox. I].....No. 1. 16
4
122 Morey on Heat and Light.
bustion still continues, is certain, from the explosive deto-
nating noise or report, continuing to be distinctly heard.
Orford, May 4th, 1819.
Arr. XID. On Heat and Light; by Mr. Samven Morey.
[Second Communication.]
TO PROFESSOR SILLIMAN.
Sir,
AS the use of a certain proportion of water for affording
heat and light, has become more familiar, and some of the
experiments being very simple, and such as may be easily
repeated, I have thought I might be justified in submitting
to your perusal some further remarks and experiments on
ihat subject; hoping you may there from select something
which may find rine in the American Journal.
I find, that, for common use, the most convenient mode is
to evaporate the substance designed to afford light, or light
and heat, provided it naturally contains a sufficiency of water
a vapor burn with a white flame free from ae ;
we observe mineral coal when the fire first reaches it,
we shall perceive, that the vapor which first issues, burns
with a hat flame, free from smoke; owing atte stent
to the great Mahe of water. So also it is with pitch-
pine raat or the fat knots, if the heat be not too great. It
is curious to seat the effect in burning pw Sea of pi
wood, which contains more or less of the Mie
streams of vapor are often pushed out to a r SoLASeeae dis-
tance, and burn with a very pleasant white flame. These
knots burn for a long time, and will sometimes retain water
enough to burn the vapor without Smoke, until the whole of
Ty
F
;
ay
f
Morey on Heat and Light. 123
the wood adjoining them has been converted into coal.—
These streams of vapor appear to me to be very different
from those of the Carburetted Hydrogen, which are often
seen issuing from burning wood after it has become nearly
coal. These rarely, if ever, go out, and the flame follows
them to the wood. Not so with those of the vapor: they
are plainly to be seen issting to some distance, and mixing
generally with a proportion of air, before they will burn;
and they are often extinguished by puffs of too great a pro-
portion of steam. The colour of these vapors, their deto-
nating noise, their variously coloured flames—(blue, blue
and white, white and intense white) we can now perfectly
imitate at our pleasure with the patent lamp stove, by burn-
ing tar, pitch pine, or mineral coal and water. :
One of the greatest difficulties which I have mef with,
was from the inclination the tar or rosin manifests, to over-
flow or run out, when heated to about the temperature of
boiling water; this disposition arises undoubtedly from the
sudden conversion of the water, contained in every part of
ating the difficulty is, by filling the vessel only in part—~say
One quarter with tar, and then filling it with small or fine
coal.* The effect appears to be, that the tar, as it becomes
heated at the sides of the vessels, rises up and passes off
laterally into the centre of the coal, in a geat measure out of
the reach of the high temperature at the sides; when the
bubbles are broken, the vapor passes up through the coal,
and the tar settles down, to repeat the same operation. This
experiment may in some measure be easily tried by a common
skillet. Fill it about one quarter with tar; place live coals
around it, and in a few minutes the tar will flow over : but,
if previously fine coal be added so as nearly to fill the skil-
let, it cannot be made to flow over with a common charcoal
fire, unless urged by a strong blast. When the vapor rises
pretty freely above the coal, and if a flame is applied, it takes
fire and will continue to burn while the tar lasts.—If a piece
of coal of some size be made a little concave and placed at
the top in the centre, and a little water poured into it, it re-
Mains a considerable time, although enveloped in flame:
and is evaporated without boiling. The flame around this
; . 2. tot i bd
* We take it for granted that charcoal Editor
124 Morey on Heat and Light.
water, while evaporating, is whiter and freer from smoke. —
fa tunnel be inverted over the coal, the vapor as it issues
from it may be inflamed. At first, in consequence undoubt-
edly of the great proportion of water given off by the tar
and coal, it burns without smoke. en the flame becomes
reddish, and there is much smoke, pour a little water into
the tunnel as it stands; it is received on the coal without
driving out or exploding the tar, as it otherwise would. The
vapor may again be inflamed, and again burns without smoke.
Much in this way, may be had a useful light and fire for
cooking especially at sea, and for a great many other pur-
poses. Ifthe tunnel be flatted, or if the coal has been par-
tially saturated with water, it burns with less smoke, and
sand or ashes will prevent a loss by the side. Another
great advantage derived from the coal, besides that of giving
a more uniform steady fire, and preventing the tar’s running
over, is the groat quantity of water it absorbs, and that of
the watér’e aging so obstinately to it, which in a great
measure, answers every purpose of a constant supply of
steam from a separate boiler. Newly made and red hot
charcoal will take up about three times its weight of water,
which it will in some measure retain until nearly consumed.
_ Sand, ashes, or fine clay answers well for mixing with the
tar &c. If the latter be made into a paste with equal parts
of spirits of turpentine and water, and cold lumps of it of a
fsptts of turpentine an Fitofe
be placed on a table, and a flame applied, the
vapors burn without smoke for a short time; if placed on 2
stove at a temperature something like that of boiling water,
the flame continues much longer. If enclosed in a tin cylin-
der, and the vapor be made to issue through small holes at
the top, placed as before stated, or on a plate over a chafing-
dish of coals, it burns with a very white light, free from
smoke. Ifthe cylinder be tight at the top, and the vapor
be led from the inside at the top, down and through the
bottom and there be made to issue in an oblique direction,
and from a number of small openings, it will burn with a
beautiful flame, and ma? se and regulates, very accurately,
its Own evaporation. ‘The oblique direction carries the heat
in part beyond the cylinder, when the evaporation is too
eat.
Every effect may be produced in consuming the smoke,
and giving an intense white flame, by using a certain pro~
Morey on Heat and Light. 125
ortion of water intimately blended or mixed with these
vapors, that can be from an excess of oxygen furnished b
creating a very strong current of air, with a high flue. With
water it is effected much more conveniently, and without
carrying off any part of the heat from the room. Another
advantage is, it carries along with it the whole of the tar and
consumes it. For instance, if into a piece of a gunbarrel
about six inches long, tar be made to flow regularly at one
end, a quantity of steam let into the same end, and the iron
kept at a temperature below or at a red heat, the vapors
issuing through small holes at the other end, may be infla-
med, and, if the proportions are right, will burn without
smoke, and for aught that appears, may be continued while
the supply lasts. But if the steam be shut off, and the tar
contains no water, the small apertures and the barrel itself
will in a short time, become filled with a coaly residium.
Another advantage in using a proportion of water is, that
tar or rosin is evaporated at a much lower temperature,
which must be increased asthe proportion of water decreases,
inorder to furnish the same quantity of light.
As I understand it, all the heat that is necessary to fur-
n only at the bottom, whether the air be led directly
across the coal and taken from the opposite side, or made
126 Morey on Heat and Light.
and furnishes a constant and almost perfectly regular sup-
ply; so much so, that while evaporating the pitch pine or
other pilihenite for the light, it is barely possible some-
times to perceive any variation for
The cylinder "for holding the pitch pine or other rahe
stance, is placed within or surrounds this. I find the best
mode of letting out the vapor, is from a circular tube, on
the principle of Argand’s lamp; sometimes, when much
light is required, from a cluster of them ; and to furnish
them with fresh, and very hot air, bya tube pesos down
and through the ignited coal and grate. This very hot air
tends much to preserve the temperature of the vapor until
inflamed ; and to increase the bulk of the flame, as well as
its intensity. This tube requires a register also. And this
kind of lamp, or lamp- {ea admits of a glass burner or flue,
as conveniently as any ot
It will easily be seen, tat thin sheet-iron on this plan,
will give as regular aud as durable a heat, as brick or stone
of any thickness. If instead of putting in ignited coals at
the bottom, two or three inches of them are placed on the
top, the red heat of the coal passes down through the whole
in a few minutes, leaving the coal black above, just as fast
as it is ignited below, until it reaches the bottom, when it
becomes stationary. After this piasrt there is no smoke
from. the coal, even if there was before
’e can burn in this kind of stove or lamp, (which may
be at the same time, for aught I see, extended to warming
and cooking, as well as to the lighting of houses, manufac-
tories, &c.) charcoal pare saturated with water or not;
or the steam may be furnished by a small tin plate, or other
, receiving its heat from the stove, and directing the
steam to or near the bottom of the tar, &c.: tar, rosin, rough
turpentine, or the spirit, or alcohol, or any kind of oil, fat,
or tallow ; mineral coal, pitch-pine wood, and the knots,
birch bark k, pumpkin, sun-flower, flax, and other seeds; 3; as
well as many other substances : the result is, a pleasant oF
intense white flame, free from smoke. ‘That substance
which per has the most generally distributed over the
earth, and which too is the cheapest known or used for
affording pent Sing toh to be the best adapted for burning
in these or it is equally safe, easiest managed,
ope ote % a ches temperature, consumes a greater pro-
Morey on Heat and Light. 127
rs.
obtained from the same wood. The more volatile parts are
evaporated at a temperature below that of boiling water,
and burn well with three parts of the vapor of water: the
flame then, however, is nearly blue. A kind of spirit may
easily be procured from distilling this wood, which will be
highly inflammable ; and which, I should think, can cost
but a few cents per gallon, as it comes over most rapidly. _
It is with all its water well calculated to burn in these -
lamps. Be eee .
I exposed some of it to severe frost one night, and found
nearly three-fourths of the lower part converted into a cake
of ice. This was some of the first that came over, and con-
sequently contained more water than it would afterwards.
It was distilled by one of the lamp-stoyes, exactly in the
same manner as if I had filled it for burning to give light.
While distilling I often applied a flame to the vapor, and
found it always would take fire. Its appearance is very
similar to brandy. One pound of the fattest part of the
liquor or spirit. It dissolves rosin, mixes and spreads well
with paints, and appears to prepare wood as well for receiv-
- ng a coat of paint as ail.
There is something singular in the vapor of pitch pine,
when issuing through small apertures. The particles do
hot repel each other like other vapors ; but, if not inflamed,
they issue, when under a moderate pressure, two or three
inches without increasing their size at all: sometimes these
jets extend eight or ten inches and apparently as fine as a
hair, accompanied often, above the stream, with an invisible
vapor, which is known only by its burning with a blue,
lame, hardly visible. There is no doubt that on a scale of
some magnitude this substance will afford abundance of heat
or its own evaporation, much in the same manner as that
mentioned for burning spirits of turpentine and water. The
birch bark too is almost wholly converted into a liquid,
128 - Morey on Heat and Light.
darker and thicker :* and as the bark of this wood appears
to be as indestructible by time as charcoal, I know not why
this too may not be useful for many purposes. Nothing
can burn better than the vapor of this bark, but it requires
a much higher temperature to evaporate it ; and as it is re-
‘plenished by nature when taken from growing trees, by
cultivating those trees for firewood, we at the same time are
reaping an abundance of an excellent substance for light.
hen the piece of gun barrel mentioned is used, it makes
_ the chief of the grate, the flame and the smoke , when there
is any, and the air also, enter about two inéhies above and
pass down through the grate. The bulk of the flame, when
the steam is suffered to flow in, is nearly as three to one,
and much whiter. A singular circumstance often attended
this mode of proceeding, when it was employed in burning
rosin and water. Instead of ashes I found potash only, or
little else. So much was this the fact, that with a particular
kind of coal, the grate would become, in about two hours,
so choaked or coated, as obliged me to remove the fire.
I give the result, (very nearly,) of experiments made on
the evenings of the 22d, 23d, and 24th of March, with a
lamp weighing two pounds and two ounces, the inner eylin-
der of which is of two inches diameter at the top, and about
two and a quarter at the bottom, and six long, besides about
one inch tunnelled out at the bottom of the outer cylinder,
which is seven and a half inches long, leaving a space be-
tween the two about three-fourths of an inch in the clear.
Which space will hold nearly one pound of the wood, and
‘the inner one about two ounces of coal; the residue of the
coal is contained in a tin plate tube of the same size as the
nner cj linder, and extended above it, with a register at the
top, which is removed when the coal t is put in. A tube
leads the vapor up by the side of this to the top, where it is
let. out to burn in the manner gas would be, _takin care to
* Than wha? ws tabthe i ds beng
distilled | Pad sence presinne an the 7 before mentione
Morey on Heat and Light. - «22
hours, when I retired, leaving it burning ; but the coal was
nearly consumed. The next day I added more coal, and
kept it burning from three to four hours more.
-had lost in the whole time only about six or seven ounces,
and gave on an average, as appeared to me, about the light
of two candles. It was lighted again the next night at sev-
en: J had put in three ounces of coal, and seven of wood,
filling it up with dry ashes. It burnt till nine o’clock, giv-
ing, I should think at least the light of six candles, but not
without smoke :. the wood lost five ounces. The next night
at half past six it was lighted again, having eight ounces of
wood and three of coal. It burnt with a most beautiful blue
and white flame the first hour, inclining to a greater propor-
tion of white towards the close. At the end of another hal
hour, it had become almost wholly white, and even intense-
ly so, and so continued to half past eight, giving about the
hight of a candle: the coal had lost only one ounce, and the
wood two. The next night, at half past six, I put in three
ounces of coal: it burnt well, as the night before, two hours.
The next morning I again filled it with coal, and it burnt
with a small but intensely white flame about one hour an
ahalf: the whole time without smoke. The wood had
then lost three-fourths of its weight, or six ounces ; and had
burnt in the whole about six and a half hours.
It is said, that the water, if decomposed, can give out no
more caloric than it receives. That is possibly correct,
when applied solely to the combustibles, which decompose
: thereby doubling the quantity received from the combusti-
130 Morey on Heat and Light.
repel each other, so as to occupy twice or more the bulk
of atmospheric air, than the vapour of the combustible would
one. Oil and water repel each other to a sensible dis- -
tance, when in a cold liquid state. When at the high tem-
pose coe. How much more rapid and oi must ‘the
process be here, ‘ohiens there is an abundance of atmos-
pheric air on every side to assist and increase ie combus-
tion and decomposition, as well as for furnishing on the spot
an abundant resupply of heat. What electricity has to do
in combustion, it is not for me to say: but, that it assists in
a the particles into a greater space, { trust there is
oubt: and from its general well known energy and ac-
tivity, it evidently does not remain passive. If we apply.
the moist wick of a candle to the flame of another to light
it, it is not possible for me to distinguish the sharp cracking
reports from those of electricity.* In nature’s greatest
ereory? for the formation of carbonic acid gas, the pro-
cess rried on at a temperature not above blood heat:
that is ag soimelicng like a thousand millions of human be-
esides myriads of animals, incessantly breathing. I
know not, that he is necessary, at this temperature for that
ut what source the whole of the —e
heat, evolved by Sedition, during the formation of the car
bonic acid gas, or that evolved during the formation of water
by the combustion of its component parts, as well as from
many other processes, proceeds, | trust is as yet not fully
known. It may therefore, for aught I know, be a fact, that
much sensible heat, may be obtained by the decomposition
and recomposition of water r, if confined wholly to the com-
bustible ; but when an equal quantity of water is again re-
composed from the atmospheric air and hydrogen of the de-
composed water, solely, the oxygen, I should think, could
not be lost, surrounded as it is, on all sides, by a highly in-
flammable vapor.
* May ot be proceed from the decomposition of the water and the sud-
n of some of it into steam as when drops of water fall into @
kettle of bailing oil? —E£d.
Morey on Heat and Light. 131
Tadd some of the advantages, (as they appear to me)
which will and do result from obtaining light and heat by
the decomposition of water, instead of forming permanent
as.
1. We are not troubled with that disagreeable smell,
which accompanies carburetted hydrogen gas, unless care-
fully purified. ;
_ 2. We obtain all the light, necessary for ordinary purpo-
ses, from the same combustibles, which are used for warm-
ing the apartment. ; ‘
3. A stove supplied in this way requires less fuel for
warming an apartment, than is demanded in any other mode
with which I am acquainted, and less to warm and light the
room at the same time, than to warm it only.
4. The apparatus for furnishing this light is very cheap :
so simple that any person can manage it: so light and por-
table, that it may be placed on a table or on the mantlepieee,
or carried about the house nearly as conveniently as a lam
and as the temperature need not be so high as a red heat,
thin sheet iron must last a good while. vo
5. The whole heat, evolved during the combustion, is
retained in the room, without rendering the air unpleasant
o unhealthy. Better judges, however, will decide as to the
atter.
. The heat on ever so large a scale, will be nearly per-
fectly uniform. Stoves in my house, made of brick on this
principle, (the wood however is put in at the side) burn
rom nine o’clock at night until nine, ten, and eleven the next
day: keeping the room entirely warm, during the coldest
nights of the winter past.* ,
however is yet to be learned in the small way.
Different kinds of the fat wood, containing more or less wa-
ter, require different degrees of heat to evaporate them so
as to burn without smoke; so also with common tar, con-
blue, trimmed with a bright white. So it is with rosin, min-
eral coal, birch-bark, and pumpkin seeds. It becomes dif-
ficult in some measure, after about two thirds of the volatile
* The climate of Orford is severe—thermometer in the winter eg nae
ally from 20° to 30° of Fah. below 0. Mr. Morey does not state howi
has been there during the late cold winter.—Ed.
132 ‘ Damnel A. Clark on Snow.
parts of the substances are evaporated, to make them burn
without smoke. It is however done by lessening the te
oration. It would undoubtedly be better econom e
large way at least, to attach a small boiler for farniching a.
supp y of steam
or manufactories or light houses, I see not a necessity
of further experiments ; especially if tlie wood of the piteh
pine be used; which will be much the cheapest substance.
e wood is re of more value, pound for nga
than the tar made from
Tam ce patie yours,
SAMUEL MOREY.
Orford, March 28th, 1820.
Remarks.—Myr. Gay Lussac, of Paris, in the Annales de
Chimie, &c. for June 1819, has commented on Mr. Morey’s
method of producing light and heat, and stated some ob-
jections. It was my intention to translate this piece, and.
give it to the American eat along with Mr. Morey’s
communications, but the accidental loss'of the No. of the
Annales de Chimie in wa puts this, for the present, out
of my awe. 3
Arr. XIV. On some curious ead pile ct meine of
snow sete hail, by the Rev. Danien A. Cua
‘TO PROFESSOR SILLIMAN.
Dear Sir,
J SPENT the winter of 1808 and 9 in the county of Morris,
in New-Jersey, when and where I witnessed a phenome
which perhaps may never have been observed at any other
ce or time since the creation of the world, and yet I am
not_able to say but the appearance in some parts of the
world may be common. If you think it an uncommon
event, and should judge it worthy of notice in your Journal,
the following statement is at your service
There fell a deep snow I think about the middle of Janu-
ary. When it had lain upon the earth several days, the
Daniel A. Clark on Snow. 133
weather being very cold, there passed over us one evening,
a cloud, from which there fell a small shower of rain. The
cloud was suddenly carried off by a northern blast, which
congealed the water in the very surface of the snow, and
covered the face of the earth with ice. The moon was full
and the evening very fine. When a sufficient time had _
elapsed to permit the ice to form, another cloud appeared,
from which there fell a shower of snow to the depth,
should judge of three fourths of an inch. Then the sky
suddenly cleared, the cold became very intense and the
wind blew a gale. Nature now began her sport. Particles
of the snow would move on the icy crust from twelve to
twenty inches, and would then begin to roll making a track
upon the ice shaped like an isosceles triangle. The balls
enlarged according to circumstances. I passed in the morn-
ing under the south side of a long inclined plain, free from
almost every kind of obstruction. In many instances the
rolls had apparently descended the bill by their own gravi-
ty, aided by the wind which commenced the sport, until
they reached the bottom, or lodged in the path, and were
of the size of a barrel and some even larger. Thus the
whole creation as far as the eye could see, was covered with
snow balls differing in size, from that of a lady’s muff, to the
diameter of two and a half or three feet, hollow at each end
to almost the very centre, and all as true as so many logs of
wood shaped in a lathe.
I do not know the extent to which this Lusus nature was
observed, but I believe to no very great extent. The old-
- €st men in the neighbourhood had never witnessed the like
phenomenon, and all were filled with amazement at the
Spectacle which the fields exhibited in the morning. — .
-he exhibition depends on so many concurring circum-
stances, that I suppose it may never have happened in any
other ¥e- The rain must fall suddenly and freeze oe
.
small had not the declivity of a hill promoted the opera-
ton.
134 Remarks on Atmospheric Dust.
There was also, two years before, a fall of hail in the
same county, which was to me in some respects new.—
‘he hail stones were generally about one fourth or three
eighths of an inch thick and of sufficient dimension in length
and breadth to hide a shilling, and in many cases a cent, and
almost every one perforated in the middle as if they had
‘been held between the fingers, ull the mt by their:
When
warmth had melted away the middle and had me
the perforation was not complete, there was in noise case
an inclination to perforation. The storm was tremendous,
but of short duration and took place in the heat of summer.
T observed then and have many times observed since,
that hail is usually accompanied by contrary winds which
seem striving over our heads for the mastery. I wish sir,
you, isnot the hail always produced by conflicting
sind which, in the place where they meet, force the
mosphere above the freezing point, and cause the vapour
to congeal ? And if this be the fact will not the hail be lar-
ting ieee can support its 2 Weigin, and thus be o> the
longer time above the freezing point and become so muce
the larger. The perforation in the case above mentioned
was, I suppose, effected while falling, but by what means
LT know not. The hail might have been strung like so many
beads.
Art. XV. Remarks on Atmospheric Dust, in reply to Mr.
RaFINESQuE.
TO PROFESSOR SILLIMAN. .
Sir,
BEING a subscriber to your Journal, I observe, (Vol. 1.
No. IV. p. 597,) an article from the ingenious and learned
Mr. Rafne esque, on Atmospheric Dust. 1 confess I can
hardly agree with that gentleman in several opinions. which
Remarks on Atmospheric Dust. 135
referred to, are doubtless true, but, as I apprehend, attribu-
ted to wrong causes. Iam not disposed to question that
m which there is not a sufficient breeze sometim
course of the twenty-four hours, to set in motion what we
call atmospheric dust. And occasionally immense quan-
tities are raised. In the stillest times, vegetables and
trees are constantly depositing decayed matter, and some
accompany it there. Besides, the dust which is visible at
Sea, is visible only when the ship is nearly or quite becalm-
ed ; and may it not then arise in a great measure from the
deck of the ship? : :
Mr. R. “calculates that on an average, from six to
twelve inches are accumulated over the ground in one hun-
dred years.” Taking his lowest estimate, six inches for
136 Remarks on Atmospheric Dust.
one hundred years, the medium thickness of the deposit on
- the surface of the earth in 1800 years, will not be less than
nine feet. But Mr. R. goes farther, and supposes that in
former times the deposit must have been much more abun-
dant than at present. So that I apprehend we should do
his theory ample justice, by saying that the diameter of the
earth is now, from this single cause, twenty-seven feet sretts
er than it was at the birth of our Saviour. But if we ex-
amine the surface of the earth, we shall find there has ‘edad
no such change. How happens it that rocks and stones are
every where to be met with? — Are they made by a fortui-
tous concurrence of atoms from aerial deposit! o the
minerals, so various in their primitive substances, in their
kinds and composition, which are spread all over the sur-
face of the earth, and which are collected and form the
cabinets of the curious, do they owe their origin to atmos-
pheric dust? Has the iccmines the property of depos-
iting one substance here, and another there, so as to make
one tract of country clay, another gravel, and another rocks,
and all lying in the same vicinity ? But without pursuing
the subject farther, I think the ideas already suggested are
sufficient to show that Mr. R.’s theory, instead of account-
~ ing for any facts, is wholly irreconcileable with what we ev-
ery where observe with respect to the operations of nature.
UE am respectfully, your obedient servant.
:¥oGe
P. $.—Sir—If you think the foregoing remarks may
ee a place in your instructive Journal, please insert
eaten Oct. 1, 1819.
~ Observation.—I have not the account at hand, anid only
advert from memory to the astonishing bem of extremely
fine, indeed impalpable dust, found not long since in the
castle of Edinburgh, in Scotland on opening an apartment,
and a chest containing th e Regalia of the ci-devant king-
om. My impression ed that they had been closed ever
since the union, viz. two centuries, and that the dust, m @
form light as down, was several inches thick. Whatever
theory of atmospheric dust be adopted, this fact is very
curious, and well worthy of being more accurately stated
and preserved.— Editor,
aa
Se
Dr. J. F. Dana on the existence of 137
FOR THE ete JOURNAL OF SCIENCE, b¥
Ant. XVI. On the evistence of Cantharidin in the Lytt
- Vittata or Potatoe Fly; by J. Freeman Dana, M. D.
_ Lecturer on Chemistry &c. .
TO PROFESSOR SILLIMAN,
Dear Sir,
Ir appears from the experiments of Robiquet, mentioned
by Dr. Thomson in the last edition of his System of Chem-
istry, that a peculiar substance exists in the Melie Vesica-
torius. To this substance Dr. Thomson has given the
uame Cantharidin, and it is supposed to be the peculiar mat-
ter which produces vesication. ms begs
It is well known that some other insects, beside the M.
Vesicatorius, possess the power of blistering, and that this
property belongs, in a remarkable degree, to the Lytta Vit-
tata or Potatoe Fly, so common in this country. This in-
‘t, from the experiments of Dr. Gorham of _Boston,* and
of others, appears to possess vesicating powers ina higher
degree even than the Spanish Fly, and it became an en-
quiry of some interest to know whether it contained a sub-
stance analogous to Cantharidin.
_ [digested a small quantity, 110 grains of the Potatoe Fly
in warm distilled water for several days, and the fluid ofa
ark brown colour was then decanted ; i aaobeied was then
added, and the operation repeated until no farther action
which remained some time. The dry extract being di-
gested in highly rectified alcohol was divided into two por-
tions, one of which was dissolved by the spirit, the other
= i ; setts Medical Society, No. 1).
Part 551 (and Dr Rataniel Dag’ Memolee—Tran-of Cant. Awd
+t. part I. Dp: 80.9 J :
Vox, IL.....No. 1. 18
\
138 Cantharidin in the Potatoe Fly.
remaining at the bottom of the vessel in flocculi; the clear
alcoholic solution of an amber colour was poured into.a
retort, and the spirit drawn off by distillation; a reddish
brown substance remained which possessed some peculiar
properties. It was very pungent to the taste; when dry and
warm it was brittle like rosin, and presented a rosinous frac-
ture ; after remaining some minutes exposed to the air it
became soft like wax, or more like sulphur when prepared
for making sulphur casts, and gradually deliquesced neasly
to the consistence of tar or treacle at 60° or 70° Faht. It
was readily soluble in water, as might be inferred from its
deliquescence.
This substance was put into a portion of pure sulphuric
et’ >; at first no change appeared, but after a few hours
the substance softened, and by agitation the ether acquired
a yellow colour; the ether was poured off and other por-
tions added until they ceased to acquire colour. ‘The sub-
was then suffered to evaporate spontaneously in the open
air. The substance remaining after the dissipation of the
ether was glutinous and of a light yellow colour; very high-
ly rectified alcohol was poured over it, and instantly as-
sumed a yellow colour, while numerous minute crystalline
plates appeared diffused through the liquid, and soon sub-
sided ; the small crystals were washed in alcohol and dried ;
they were in very minute quantity, white and pearly ; the
quantity was so small, that their properties could not be as-
certained ; they were placed on the tender skin between
the fingers and soon excited itching and redness; probably
full vesication would hate been produced if a larger quah-
tity had been used.
-It was proposed to repeat these experiments on a larger
and more extended scale, that the properties of the curious
substances above mentioned might be more fully ascertain-
ed; but it was impossible to procure a sufficient quantity ©
the Fly in which numerous larve were not busily employ-
ed, and which probably caused the first infusions in water
rapidly to putrify and exhale a most offensive odour. —
Tones
Bee i Sh aie a
3 i
American Geological Society. 139
I am disposed at present to believe, that the small erys-
talline plates above obtained, consist of Cantharidin ; and
that the above experiments are a strong confirmation of the
idea that the vesicating property of insects depends on the
presence of a peculiar substance which may possibly be
proved to be a peculiar animal alkali.
With real esteem,
Your humble obedt. servt.
J. FREEMAN DANA.
Cambridge, June 10, 1819.
INTELLIGENCE AND MISCELLANIES.
DD Sec
1. American Geological Society.
AT the conclusion of our last number, we announced the
formation of an American Geological Society and the pas-
sage of an act of Incorporation by the Legislature of Con-
necticut, conferring the necessary powers.
Agreeably to that act a number of gentlemen from differ-
ent States, held a meeting on the morning of Sept. 6th, in
the Philosophical Room of Yale College for the purpose of
organizing the society. ‘
ol. George Gibbs was called to the chair, and the plan
of a constitution was laid before the meeting by a committee.
_ On the evening of the 7th, it was adopted, after undergo-
ing various amendments. :
_ A copy is subjoined with a list of the officers elected for
the ensuing year. _ ;
Constitution of the American Geological Society.
Arr. I.—There shall be a President, eight Vice-Presi-
dents, one Recording Secretary, three Corresponding Sec-
retaries, a Curator and Treasurer, a Committee of Nomina-
tion, and a Committee of publication ; all of whom shall he
anaually elected.
140 American Geological Society.
Art. I.—The Society shall consist of not more than
one hundred members :—and of not more than twenty-five
honorary, and forty corresponding members
Arr. Lil.—Candidates for admission into the Society,
must be proposed by the Committee of Nomination, and be
chosen ee three-fourths of the members present.
Arr. 1V.—The annual meeting of the Society, for the
election of Officers, shall he held on the Tuesday some i
the second Wednesday of September, at ee hour and
place as shall be agreed upon from time to tim
Arr. V.—The other stated meetings shall % on the first
Mondays i in Serauber. March and June : and all the meet-
ings may be adjourned by the Chairman, for not more than
seven days from the dates above mentione
Art. VI.—Special meetings may be convened by reso-
lution of the Society, or by public notice from the Presi-
dent; or, in case of his absence, from the acting Vice-
President, which meetings shall be restricted to the special
objects of he Society, without power to enact regulations;
or admit members. _
Art. vil —Five als eis inghiding the President, or
one of the Vice-President, shall form a quorum
_ Arr. VIII.—Every member shall pay to the Treasurer
an 2 aon fee of five dollars, and shall be subject to an
oe. of one dollar.
The Treasurer shall pay no money from the
—— of the Society without a vote ie this purpose and
an order signed by the presiding office
Arr. X.—The Sotiety shall be totaed, provisionally, at
New-Haven.
Arr. XI.—No alteration shall be made i in the Constitu-
sae unless it be proposed in writing, at one of the stated
Ss, previous to the annual meeting in September, and
shall be be decided by a majority of two thirds of the members
pres at the said annual meeting. —
t. XII.—In such points of order as are not noticed im
this oustindon, the Society will conform to the saaiera Ys
customs of other similar institutions.
American Geological Society. 144
cers.
William Maclure, President.
George Gibbs,
T. D. Porter, Curator.
A. M. Fisher, Treasurer.
Benjamin Silliman, ; B. Silliman, Committe
Parker Cleaveland, | Vice- | G. Gibbs, - Moms.
Stephen Elliott, Presi- | P.Cleaveland,( ~~.
R ination.
Robert Gilmor, Jr. ¢ dents. . Hare,
Samuel Brown, — . George Gibbs, ) Committee
Robert Hare, JILWW. at of Pub-
{ Vacant. ] J James Pierce, lication.
L’. Dwight, Porter, Rec. Sec. 3
JW. Webster,
F.C. Schaeffer, ' Corresponding Secretaries.
E. Hitcheock, pe hy . ane
The stated meeting for December having been postpon-
ed, a special meeting was held on the 26th of January,
1820, in the new Cabinet of Yale College.
_ Col. Gibbs, as first Vice President, took the chair.
Professor Silliman presented a memoir of considerable
extent on parts of the counties of New-Haven and Litch-
field, in Connecticut. He gave a connected view of the stra-
ta and formations from the old red sand stone, the green
stone trap, and alluvial of New-Haven, through the succeed-
ing clay slate, chlorite slate, and micaceous slate, to the
Gneiss and Granite of the Alpine region of Litchfield coun-
_ The extensive beds of white granular marble which al-
ternate many times with the mica slate and gneiss of Litch-
field county, and afford inexhaustible materials for archi-
tecture and the arts, were particularly noticed, as were the
fine iron ore beds of Salisbury and Kent, and the spathic
iron of Roxbury all of which are also situated in the gneiss
and mica slate. 'Tremolite, garnet, staurotide, sappar, plu-
Mose mica stalactitical brown iron and graphic granite, oc-
curred in fine specimens, in the tract described, and speci-
mens of most of these were presented for the cabinet of
the Society. :
The same gentleman presented specimens of massive
fluor spar, regently discovered iu the parish of New-Strat-
142 American Geological Society.
ford, town of Huntington, map ror 8 by Mr. Ephraim
Late; four miles south of his mine shiek affords beormith
tungsten,* &c. According to Mr. Lane, this vein is two
feet in width; and its immediate walls are white granular
limestone which forms an extensive bed in gneiss. This
fluor spar appears at two places, distant a fourth of a mile,
and, when the snow is gone, will probably be found to form
a gigantic vein, It has been observed only since the snows
fell, and was first noticed in some fragments of lime stone,
which had been quarried for burning.
e vein is much penetrated by quartz, mica, feldspar,
ad ted but, it has been hitherto examined only on the sur-
face. It is principally massive and its structure foliated or
coarsely granular, but it presents well defined cubical crys-
tals. Its colours vary from white to deep violet and purple,
and are, principally various shades of the two latter. But
the most interesting circumstance relating to it is its splen-
did phosphorescence. The light emitted when, it is thrown,
in a dark place, upon a hot shovel, is the purest emerald green ;
ieces of an inch in diameter become in a few seconds, ful-
ly illuminated, and the light is so strong and enduring, that
when carried into a room lighted by candles, or, by the
diffuse (not direct) light of the sun they still continue dis-
= nctly luminous and the light dies away very gradually as
the mineral cools. This interesting property was exhibited
to the members of the soc society. Is not this variety of fluor
spar oe the true chlorophane of Siberia 2
P - presented to the Society specimens of the green
serpentine marble found near New-Have en, and which, ac-
and various geological specimens ; among w which were varl-
eties nei the mere rocks of Hasselt Connecticut. These
teresting.
* See Vol. I, page 316 of this Journal.
RN EE IEEE
’
\
.
ee ee
American Geological Society. 143
Mr. T. D. Porter presented some of the finest crystals of
sed oxid of titanium that have been any where found; the
following memorandum accompanied them.
This titanium which I discovered in 1818, exists very
well crystalized, and in comparative abundance, in masses
quartz which are scattered over the surface throughout
the counties of Amherst, Campbell and Bedford, about twenty
miles above Richmond in-Virginia. Probably also it may
be found in other counties contiguous to these, as the same
rocks occur very extensively in all that quarter of the state ;
but I never had an opportunity to make any examination
except in those I have mentioned.
Many of the specimens which I procured are superior
both in size and in beauty, to any of the same species in the
Cabinets which I have seen. A fragment of one crystal which
Lobtained, measures 1,); in chesin diameter, and others are
nearly as large. I have one specimen 3,% inches in length,
and another more than 3}: both these are mutilated—the -
latter is broken off at each end, and was probably much
larger ; it is of the size of one’s finger. The larger speci-
mens are very liable to be thus injured, being exceedingly
brittle. Their fracture is commonly foliated longitudinally
and vitreous in the other direction. Frequently they are
completely penetrated by quartz in the same manner as
he green tourmaline of Massachusetts is by the Rubellite. _
ike the different varieties of schorl, the greater part o!
the crystals were so compressed and striated, that their
figure was very variable, oftener nearly cylindrical than of
any regular prismatic form. I met with two or three spe-
cimens which were four sided prisms, truncated on each of
the angles, having their terminations broken off and with a
single crystal of four sides, which like those of the specimens
Just mentioned, seemed to meet at right angles and termi-
nated very handsomely by a pyramid, whose sides corres-
ponded with those of the prism. Many examples of crys-
talline termination were observed, but generally they were
exceedingly irregular ; sometimes one of the terminal planes
was so large as almost entirely to obliterate the remainder.
I believe I saw but two crystals with both ends perfect,
among more than a hundred specimens which I collected. |
e proportion of the titanium found here, exhibited
that peculiarity of configuration which is so characteristic of
144 — Curious Geological Facts.
this mineral termed genvculation. In some cases a crystal
was bent at but one angle; in others at many—and in others
still, while the specimen was perfectly straight and smooth
on one side, the opposite was marked by many flexures, a
part only of the molecules, having apparently been subject
to the law that determined to this angular form. ‘T'wo spe~
cimens fell in my way which had all the angles rounded,
appearing as if they had ones partial fusion. Instances
of the reticulated variety were rare.
The ¢ colour of the oxid, per tar taken from the interior of
the masses in which it was imbedded, was a beautiful red,
often accompanied by translucency ; but that more exposed
to the weather was commonly opake and almost black.
P.S. The Virginia titanium, although infusible by the
common blow pipe, melts under the flame of the compound
blow pipe of Prof. Hare, but is not reduced to the metallic
state
The Society directed Cases to be enemeee to receive
specimens which may be presented.
In siceciletitse with the abave direction, provision is now
made to preserve and display a collection as fast as it shall
be formed. By permission it will be located for the present
in the new apartment devoted to the cabinet of Col. Gibbs,
—_ of Yale College.
denoss will be duly dnl os prin their donations maa be |
properly acknowledged.
2. Curious Geological Facts. i
In the Seoncnaiy Review for Dec. 1819, No. 43, pe 52,
the following very interesting fact is mentioned. It is in-
troduced in giving an account of the quarries of marb!
m which the blocks are taken for the construction of the
celebrated Break-water at Plymouth, in England: “ The
— are situated at Oreston, on the eastern shore of
atwater; they lie under a surface of about twenty-five
acres, and. were purchased from the Duke of Bedford for
Curious Geological Facts. 145
communication through the rock in which it was imbedded,
nor any appearance of an opening from above being en-
closed by infiltration. When, therefore, and in what man-
ner these bones came into that situation, is among the secret
and wonderful operations of nature which will probably
never be revealed to mankind.”
Fhe perusal of the above brought to my recollection a
fact if possible still more astonishing: it is mentioned by
Count Boutnon in his Mineralogy, and as that work has (I
believe) never been translated, I will here give the passage
etre, =:
“ During the years 1786, 7, and 8, they were occupied
near Aix in Provence, in France, in quarrying stone for the
rebuilding, upon a vast scale, of the Palace of Justice. The
stone was a limestone of a deep grey, and of that kind
which are tender when they come out of the quarry, but
by exposure to the air. The strata were separated
‘from one another by a bed of sand mixed with clay, more.
or less calcareous. “The first which were wrought presented
work-
146 . Fossil Bones. —
stone of this bed having been removed, as they were taking
way a stratum of argillaceous sand, which separated the
eleventh bed from the twelfth, they found stumps of columns
and fragments of stones half wrought, and the stone was
exactly similar to that of the quarry : they found moreover
coins, handles of hammers, and other tools or fragments of
tools in wood. But that which principally commanded
their attention, was a board about one inch thick and seven
or eight feet long ; it was broken into many pieces, of which
none were missing, and it was possible to join them again
one to another, and to restore to the board or plate its ori-
ginal form, which was that of the boards of the same kind
used by the masons and quarry men: it was worn in the
same manner, rounded and waving upon the edges
“ The stones which were completely or partly wrought,
had not at all changed in their nature, but the fragments of
the board, and the instruments, and pieces of instruments of
wood, had been changed into agate, which was very fine
and agreeably coloured. Here then, (observes Count Bour-
non,) we have the traces of a work executed by the hand of
man, placed at the depth of fifty feet, and covered with
eleven beds of compact limestone : every thing tended to
e that this work had been executed upon the spot
where the traces existed. The presence of man had ther ~
preceded the formation of this stone, and that very consid-
erably since he was already arrived at sucha degree of
civilization that the arts were known to him, and that he
wrought the stone and formed columns out of it.”
3. Fossil Bones found in red sand stone, communicated by
Professor NarHan Smita.
Mr. Solomon Ellsworth, Jun. of East-Windsor, (Conn.)
has politely favoured me with some specimens of fossil
nes, included in red sand stone. Mr. Ellsworth informs
which contained it, and several pieces of bones had_ beer
picked up, and then lost. The specimens which I have
Bigelow on the Sea Serpent. 147
human bones, or the bones of brute animals. Possibly by
examining more of the fragments of the rock which have
old red sand stone of Werner, which, with superincumbent ridges of green
stone tran. fc fondi ion from th bore at New-Haven to the
sach
f
nt a8 + oO ct 1 ; ry Mas
This sand stone region, which is more than one hundred and ten miles long,
e
ruins of granite, with no cement, but finer portions of the same blended with
oxid of iron,) cannot but be considered as very interesting.
were evidently those of a per d consid la imal—some of
wi se ; there was a long cylindrical cavity, which appear-
ed to have been occupied by an os humerus remaini the rock, with
e of its condyles rtion of the sternum—of art which is ter-
minated by the ensiform cartilag her bones were so completely encas-
1 rock, that it not be Profe
the possibility that they might be human bones, but did not consider the
specimens as sufficiently distinct to form the basis of a certain conc §
— is understood also to be the opinion of Professor Mitchell, of New-
ork.
4. Documents and Remarks respecting the Sea Serpent ;
communicated by Professor Jacos BicrLow, of Boston.
Mr. Sinuiman,
Iv the year 1817, an unusual marine phenomenon excited
notice in the harbour of Gloucester, Mass. bemg one
which the mariners and fishermen of that place were unac-
quainted. Its character and appearance have since been
well known to the public under the name of the Sea Serpent.
“
148 Bigelow on the Sea Serpent.
The accounts of this phenomenon given under oath by va-
rious witnesses, also some accounts of previous appearances
of the same kind, were collected and published by the Lin-
nean Society of New-England, that the public might possess
a fair and correct statement of what had been observed in
regard to so interesting a subject. In the following year
Capt. Rich of Boston, went on an expedition fitted out for
the purpose of taking the Sea Serpent, and after a fruitless
cruise of some weeks, brought into porta fish of the species
commonly known to mariners and fishermen by the name
of Thunny, Albicore or Horse Mackerel, the Scomber
thynnus of Linneus, and which fish he asserted to be the
same as that denominated Sea Serpent. This disappoint-
ment of public curiosity was attended at the time by a dis-
belief on the part of many, of the existence of a distinct ma-
rine annimal of the serpent kind, or of the dimensions and
shape A 2 by the witnesses at Gloucester and else-
where. In some of the aciennts. -Joataals remarks have
been os hichesk . which the testimony of these witnesses
is announced to be an “ absurd ae attributable to a “ de-
ective observation connected with an a degree of
‘fear
__ AS eh friends of science can have no object in view more
rtant than the attainment of truth, it is proper to sub-
Pe to the public consideration some additional evidence in
vegard to the size and shape of this marine annimal which
has come to light since the publication of Capt. Rich’s letter
on the subject. This evidence is partly the result of obser-
vations made during the present yeas and partly the con-
tents of a communication made to the American Academ}
of Arts and Sciences fifteen years ago, but which, having
been mislaid, has not before been published. The reader
will judge whether itis a “ defective observation” which has
whether it was an “ extravagant degree of fear’ which in-
duced the commander of an American frigate to man his
* See Thomson’s annals for Jan. 1819, a letter from Mr. Say of Philadel-
phia. Inthe American Journal of Science vol. I. p. 260, isa note from the
Bigelow on the Sea Serpent. 149
solving what may now perhaps be considered the most in-
_ teresting problem in the science of Natural history.
(Copy.) Wiscasset, May 22, 1904.
To the Honorable Joun Q. Apams, corresponding Secre-
tary of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences.
- Sr,
As one object of the Academy is to notice and preserve
discoveries in atural History, 1 am induced to communi-
Wished. I therefore wrote Mr. Cummings, and in reply,
received a statement more in detail, which accompanies this,
and is marked B.
was afterwards informed, that George Little Esq. -
commander of the Boston frigate, saw @ sea Monster simuar
150 _ Bigelow on the Sea Serpent.
to the one described by Mr. Cummings, in the time of the
revolutionary war with Great Britian ; and as I was anxious
or all the information that was to be had, I wrote him on
the subject, and he forwarded the enclosed (marked C.) in
answer to my letter. I have also the testimony of a Capt.
Crabtree of Portland, an intelligent man, which is direct
and positive. This is also enclosed and marked D. It was
written in his presence and received his signature, as a cor-
rect statement.
All this evidence, I think cannot fail to establish the fact,
that a large Sea Serpent has been seen in and near the Bay
of Penobscot. The existence of such a Monster can no
longer be reasonably disputed. But whether he constantly
resides in that vicinity, or whether he coasts further south
or north, during a part of the year, more particular informa-
tion is necessary to ascertain. Nor is it known on what
species of fish he subsists. By this communication I have
it in view only to furnish evidence of the actual existence of
the animal. It will probably operate in favour of further
information, and lead to a particular history of this hitherte
“undescribed Serpent.
1 am, with great esteem,
Your humble servant,
| A, BRADFORD,
A. Suuiivay, Aug. 17th, 1805.
My Dear Str,
With peculiar pleasure 1 comply with your request,
though the urgency of my affairs must excuse my brevity.
It was sometime in July 1802 that we saw this extraordina-
5 sea monster, on our passage to Belfast, between Cape
osoi and Long Island. His first appearance was neat
Long Island. I then supposed it to be a large shoal of fish
with a seal at one end of it, but wondered that the seal
should rise out of water so much higher than usual ;_ but,
as drew nearer to our boat, we soon discovered that
this whole appearance was but one animal in the form of a
serpent. I immediately perceived that his mode of swim-
ming was exactly such as had been described to me by
some of the people on Fox Islands, who had seen an anima!
| a
Bigelow on the Sea Serpent. 151
of this kind before, which must confirm the veracity of their
report. For this creature had not the horizontal but an as-
cending and descending serpentine motion. This renders it
highly probable that he never moves on land to any consid-
erable distance and that the water is his proper element.
His head was rather larger than that of a horse, but formed
like that ofa serpent. His body we judged was more than
sixty feet in length. His head and as much of his body as
we could discover was all of a blue colour except a black
circle round his eye. His motion was at first but moder-
ate, but when he left us and proceeded towards the ocean, he
moved with the greatest rapidity. This monster is the sixth
the kind, if our information be correct, which has been
seen in this bay within the term of eighteen years. Mrs.
Cummings, my daughter and Miss Martha Spring were with
me in the boat at that time, and can attest to the above de-
scription. ee gat
I continue yours in christian affection,
ABRAHAM CUMMINGS.
Rey. Avexanner McLean. ~
On my way to the Schooden not meeting with Mr. Cum-
mings at home, I wrote him a few lines, requesting he
would leave me an account of the sea monster, he saw last
summer, if he should be from home on my return. The
foregoing is his account which may be gratifying to you.
erhaps it may be of the same kind with the great Sea
Snake, of which Pontoppidan, Bishop of Bergen, gives an
account. One of the same kind was seen above thirty
years ago, by the deceased Capt. Paul Reed, of Boothbay ;
another was seen in Muscongus Bay in time of the Ameri-
can war, two miles from the place where I lived then, and
another soon afterwards off Meduncook. These were all f
ever heard of, seen on this coast, but I never could have
such a particular account of them as Mr. Cummings here
gives,
A. McLEAN.
B. ' Sunuivan, Jan. 18th, 1804.
Rev. and Dear Sir,
_Lcan recollect nothing material which would render my
description of that animal more convincing. I am not sure
152 Bigelow on the Sea Serpent.
that this motion was ascending and descending; all we can
say is, 1¢ appeared so to us,* (for he was seen not only by
me, but by three other persons.) Perhaps his nearest dis-
- tance from us was ten rods. The sea was then very
smooth, and very little wind, but still there was such a con-
stant rippling of the water over his body, that I could not
distinctly observe the magnitude or colour of any part but
his head and neck. The degree of his rapidity 1 cannot
explain. But certain I am that he had a serpent’s head, of
a colour as blue as possible, and a black ring round his eye.
The head was three feet in circumference at least. Who
ever saw fifty or sixty porpoises moving after each other in
a right line, and in such a manner that those who formed
the rear were no larger than haddock and mackerel, and
none but the foremost shewed his head? Who ever saw a
serpent’s head upon a porpoise or whale? We saw him
swim as far as from Long Island to the Cape before he
disappeared. His head and neck all the time out of water.
ow who ever saw a porpoise swim so great a distance
without i immerging at all? ss young men on Fox Island,
intelligent and credible, saw an aa) of this kind about
ive years since, as they then informed me. rey 10
me, that the serpent which they saw was about sixty feet
long, and appeared to have an ascending and descending
motion. A few years before, perhaps ten years since, two
of those large serpents were seen by two other persons on
that Island, as their neighbours informed me. About twen-
ty years since, two of those serpents, they say, were seen
by one Mr. Crocket, who then lived upon Ash’ Point.
This is the best information which yon. can wheats from
our Friend eS ae
; RAHAM CUMMINGS.
Rev. Atpven Brapror
1a S. The head and neck of the animal were of the same
~ colo
c. : : : ech — -Marsnriexp, 13th March, 1804.
Sir, :
In answer to vous of the 30th of ome laut: i observe, ;
that in May, 1780, 1 was lying in Round Pond, in Broa
_* His real motion might be horizonial.
ee
Bigelow on the Sea Serpent. 153
Bay, in a public armed ship. At sunrise, I discovered a
large Serpent, or monster, coming down the bay, on the
surface of the water. The Cutter was manned and armed.
_ [went myself in the boat, and proceeded after the Serpent.
hen wv ''na hundred feet, the marines were ordered to
fire on hit. but before they could make ready, the Serpent
dove. He was not less than from 45 to 50 feet in length ;
the largest diameter of his body, I should judge, 15 inches;
his head nearly of the size of that of a man, which he car-
ried four or five feet above the water. He wore every ap-
pearance of a common black snake. When he dove he
came up near Muscongus Island—we pursued him, but
never came up within a quarter of a mile of him again.
A monster of the above description was seen in the same
place, by Joseph Kent, of Marshfield, 1751. Kent said he
was longer and larger than the main boom of his sloop,
which was 85 tons. He had a fair opportunity of viewing
him, as he was within ten or twelve yards of his sloop.
: ave the honor to be, sir,
Your friend and humble servant,
GEO. LITTLE.
Aupen Braprorp, Esq.
Capt. Crabtree, now of Portland, (late of Fox Islands,
in the bay of Penobscot,) declares, that in the year 1777,
or 1778, upon information of a neighbor, that a large Ser-
pent was in the water, near the shore, just below his house,
and having often been told by individuals that they had be-
fore seen a similar sea-monster in that quarter, and doubt-
ing of the correctness of their reports, was induced to go
down to the water to satisfy his own mind—that he saw a
large animal, in the form of a Snake, lying almost motion-
less in the sea, about thirty rods from the bank where he
stood—that his head was about four feet above water—that,
from the appearance of the animal, he was 100 feet in
length—that he did not go off to the animal through fear of
the consequences, and that he judged him to be about three
feet diameter. He also says, that before that time, many
people, living on those islands, on whose reports he could
ie had declared to him that they had seen such an
ony FT.....No..1, 20 .
154 Bigelow on the Sea Serpent.
animal—and that more than one had been seen by several
persons together.
Signed, ELEAZER CRABTREE.
The following documents have been already published -
in the newspapers, but, from their importance and recent
origin, are now re-printed, in connexion with the prece-
li * . *
| From the Boston Daily Advertiser.
THE SEA SERPENT.
The recent appearance of this animal at Nahant, in the
view of several hundred persons, has furnished, perhaps,
more conclusive proof of his existence, than any that has
before been made public. For the satisfaction of our read-
ers, we have procured a copy of the following letter, which
gives a very clear and intelligible description of his appear-
ance and movements. We have heard verbal statements
from a great number of gentlemen, all of whom agree in
substance with what is here related.
C s a i ia James Prince, Marshal of the Die
x44 to the Hon. Judge Davis, dated :
Nanant, Aug. 16th, 1819.
Dear Sir,
I presume J may have seen what is generally thought to
be the Sea Serpent—TI have also seen my name inserted in
the evening newspaper printed at.Boston on Saturday, in a
communication on this subject. For your gratification, and
from a desire that my name may not sanction any thing
beyond what was presented and passed in review before
me, I will now state that which, in the presence of more
than two hurdred other witnesses, took’ place near the long
beach of Nahant, on Saturday morning last
Intending to pass two or three days at Nahant, with my
ily, we left Boston early on Saturday morning.
passing the half-way house, on the Salem turnpike, Mr.
ee
Bigelow on the Sea Serpent. 155
Smith informed us the Sea Serpent had been seen the eve-
ning before at Nahant beach, and that a vast number of
people from Lynn, had gone to the beach that morning, in
hopes of being gratified with a sight of him: this was con-
firmed at the hotel. I was glad to find I had brought my
famous mast-head spy-glass with me, as it would enable
me, from its form and size, to view him to advantage, if I
might be so fortunate as to see him. On our arrival on
beach, we associated with a considerable number of per-
sons, on foot and in chaises—and very soon an animal of
the fish kind made his appearance. His head appeared
about three feet out of water; I counted thirteen bunches
on his back: my family thought there were fifteen—he
passed three times at.a moderate rate across the bay, but
so fleet as to occasion a foam in the water—and my family
_ and myself, who were in a carriage, judged he was fifty feet
in length, and, at the extent, not more than sixty ; whether,
nowever, the wake might not add to the appearance of his
length; or whether the undulation of the water, or his pe-
culiar manner of propelling himself, might not cause the
appearance of protuberances, I leave for your better judg-
ment. The first view of the animal occasioned some agita~
tion, and the novelty perhaps prevented that precise dis-
rimination which afterwards took place—as he swam up
the bay, we and the other spectators moved on, and kept
abreast of him; he occasionally withdrew himself under
water, and the idea occurred to me that his occasionally
raising his head above the level of the water, was to take
reath, as the time he kept under was on an average about
eight minutes ; after being accustomed to view him, we
me more composed ; and his general appearance was
as above delineated. Mrs. Prince and the coachman hav-
ing better eyes than myself, were of great assistance to me
in marking the progress of the animal; they would say he
‘8 Now turning, and by the aid of my glass I saw him dis-
hnetly in this movement ; he did not turn without occupy-
ing some space, and taking into view the time and space
which he found necessary for his ease and accommodation,
T adopted it as a criterion to form some judgment of his
ngth—I had seven distinct views of him from the long
beach so called, and at some of them the animal was not
more than an hundred yards distance. After being on the
156 Bigelow on the Sea Serpent.
long beach about an hour, the animal disappeared, and I
roceeded on towards Nahant; but on passing the second
yeach, I met Mr. James Magee, of Boston, with several
ladies in a carriage, prompted by curiosity to endeavor to
see the animal, and we were again gratified beyond even
what we saw in the other bay ; which I concluded he had
left in consequence of the number of boats in the offing in
pursuit of him—the noise of whose oars must have disturbed
him, as he appeared to us to be a harmless timid animal.
We had more than a dozen different views of him, and each
similar to the other ; one however so near, that the coach-
man exclaimed, ‘‘ Oh, see his glistening eye.” Thinkin
I might form some calculation of his length by the time and
distance of each turn; and taking an angle with my two
hands of the length he exhibited, that is to say, from his
head to his last protuberance, and applying the same angle
to other objects, I feel satisfied of the correctness of my
decision that he is sixty feet long, unless the ripple of his
wake deceived me—nor my dear sir, do I undertake to say
he was of the snake or eel kind, though this was the gene-
impression of my family, the spectators, and myself.
Certainly it is a very strange animal. I have been accus-
tomed to see whales, sharks, grampuses, porpoises, and
other large fishes, but he partook of the appearance of none
of these. The whale and the grampus would have spouted
ces
on the back or such a head as this animal. The shark,
it is true, has a fin on his back, and often the fluke of his
tai] is out of the water; but these appendages would not
display the form, and certainly not the number of protu-
berances, which this animal exhibited ; nor is it the habit
of the shark to avoid a boat. The water was extremely
smooth, and the weather clear: we had been so habituated
to see him, that we were cool and composed—the time
occupied was from a quarter past eight to half past eleven
—a cloud of witnesses exceeding two hundred, brought
together for a single purpose, were all alike satisfied and
united as to appearances, and as to the length and size of
the animal; but you must deduct the influence which his
passage through the water and the manner he propelled
himself might have as to the apparent protuberances on his
Bigelow on the Sea Serpent. 157
Extract of a letter from Mr. Curnven Fexcn, Chaplain
of the United States’ Ship Independence of 74 guns, to
the Editor of the Boston Centinel. !
Grovcester, Jug. 26, 1819.
“ Dear Sir,
so deep but we could trace his course. He rose again with-
in twenty yards distance of us, and lay some time on the
water. He then turned, and steered for Ten Pound Island:
we pulled after him; but finding that he was not pleased
with the noise of our oars, they were laid in, and the boat
skulled. We again approached very near him. — F
tinued some length of time, plying between Ten Pound
158 Bigelow on the Sea Serpent.
Island and Stage Point. Ashe often came near the Point,
we thought we could get a better view of him there, than
from the boat, of which be seemed suspicious. Mr. Mal-
bone and myself landed; and the boat was sent to order
the schooner down, for the purpose of trying what effect a
twelve pound carronade would have upon him. He did not
remain long after we landed, so that [ was unable to effect
my catention, of ascertaining, accurately, his length, with
my instruments. _ From my knowledge of aquatic animals,
and habits of intimacy with marine appearances, T could not
be deceived. We hada good view of him, except the very
short period while he was under water, for half an hour.—
His colour is a dark brown, with white under the throat.
His size, we could not accurately ascertain, but his head is
about three feet in circumference, flat and much smaller
than his body. We did not see his tail ; but from the end
of the head to the fartherest protuberance, was not far from
one hundred feet. I speak with a degree of certainty, from
being much accustomed to measure and estimate distances
and length. I counted fourteen bunches on his back, the
first one, say ten or twelve feet from his head, and the oth-
ers about seven feet apart. They decreased in size towards
the tail. ‘These bunches were sometimes counted with, and
sometimes without a glass. Mr. Malbone counted thirteen,
thirteen and fourteen, and the boatmen about
the same number. motion was sometimes very rapid,
and at other times he i nearly still. He turned slowly,
and took up considerable room in doing it. He sometimes
darted under water, with the greatest velocity, as if seizing
prey. The protuberances were not from his motion, as
they were the same whether in slow or rapid movement.
is motion was partly vertical and partly horizontal, like
that of fresh water snakes. I have been much acquainted
with the snakes in our interior waters. His motion was the
have given you in round numbers, one hundred
same. [|
feet, ten ine length; that is, what we saw; but I should say
e must be one hundred and thirty feet in length, allowing
for his tail, There were a considerable number of birds
about the Sea Serpent, as I have seen them pray a Snake
on shore. That there is an aquatic animal in the form of a
Snake, is not to be doubted. Mr. Malbone, till this day;
was incredulous. No man would now convince him, there
Se
eens eRe
Bigelow on the Sea Serpent. 159
was not such a being. The sketch or picture of Marshal
Prince, is perfectly correct. I could not, with my own
pencil, give a more correct likeness.
With respect,
Your obedient servant,
CHEEVER FELCH.
Major B. Russe.”
Brooxurne, August 19, 1819.
Dear Sir,
1 very willingly comply with your request to state what
I saw of the Sea Serpent at Nahant, on Saturday last, par-
ticularly as I happened to see it under favourable circum-
stances to form a judgment, and to considerable advantage
in $a of position and distance. -
got into my chaise about 7 o’clock in the morning, to
come to Boston, and on reaching the long Beach observed
a number of people collected there, and several boats push-
ing off and in the offing. I was speculating on what should
have occasioned so great an assemblage there without any
horse’s head. As my eye ranged along I perceived ata
short distance eight or ten regular bunches or protuberan-
ces, and ata short interval three or four more. I was now
satified that the Sea Serpent was before me, and after the
first moment of excitement produced by the unexpected
sight of so strange a monster, taxed myself to investigate his
appearance as accurately as I could.
y first object was the Head, which I satisfied myself
was serpent shaped, it was elevated about two feet from the
160 Bigelow on the Sea Serpent.
water, and he depressed it gradually, to within six or eight
inches as he moved along. I could always see under his
chin, which appeared to hollow underneath, or to curve
downward. His motion was at that time very slow along
the Beach, inclining towards the shore ; he at first moved
his head from side to side as if to look about him. I did
not see his eyes, though I have no doubt I could have seen
them if I had thought to attend to this. His bunches ap-
peared to me not altogether uniform in size, and as he mov-
ed along some appeared to be depressed, and others brought
above the surface, though I could not perceive any motion
in them. My next object was to ascertain his length. For
this purpose I directed my eye to several whale boats at
about the same distance, one of which was beyond him, and
by comparing the relative length, I calculated that the dis-
tance from the animal’s head to the last protuberance I had
noticed, would be equal to about five of those boats. I felt
persuaded by this examination that he could not be less than
eighty feet long ; as he approached the shore and came be-
tween me and a point of land which projects from the eas-
tern end of the beach, I had another means of satisfying my-
selfon this point. .
After I had viewed him thus attentively for about four or
five minutes, he sunk gradually into the water and disap-
eared ; he afterwards again made his appearance for a mo-
ment at a short distance.
‘My first reflection after the animal was gone, was, that
the idea I had received from the description you gave of
the animal you saw at Gloucester, in 1817, was perfectly
realized in this instance ; and that I had discovered nothing
which you had not before described. The most authentic
testimony given of his first appearance there seemed to me
remarkably correct ; and I felt as if the appearance of this
monster had been already familiar to me.
After remaining some two or three hours on the beach,
without again seeing him, I returned towards Nahant ; and
in crossing the small beach had another good view of him,
for a longer time, but at a greater distance. At this time
he moved more rapidly, causing a white foam under the
chin, and a long wake, and his protuberances had a more
uniform appearance. At this time he must have been see"
Bigelow on the Sea Serpent. 161
by two or three hundred persons on the beach and on the
heights each side, some of whom were very favourably situ-
ated to observe him.
I am, very respectfully,
Your obedient servant, -
SAMUEL CABOT.
Col. T. H. Perxins.
It is almost superfluous to add, that Mr. Cabot and his friend Col. Perkins,
are gentlemen of the first standing and consideration.— Editor.
__ I, Hawkins Wheeler, of Fairfield, in the county of Fair-
field, and state of Connecticut, mariner, commander of the
sloop Concord, of said Fairfield, in her late passage from
New-York to Salem, in the county of Essex and Common-
wealth of Massachusetts, on oath declare, that during the
said passage from New-York to Salem, to wit, on Monday,
the 6th day of June instant, at about 5 o’clock in the morn-
ing, the sloop being, as near as I could judge, 15 miles N.
. of Race Point, and within sight of Cape Ann, I was at
the helm of the sloop, and saw, directly a-head, (the course.
of the vessel being N. W.) something that resembled a
Snake, about 100 yards distant from the sloop, moving in a
S. W. direction. ‘The animal moved in that direction, till
he had passed athwart the course of the sloop, and appeared
directly over the weather bow, when he altered his course
toS. E. At this time he had been visible about five min-
utes, when he sunk, and in about six or eight minutes after,
appeared again directly over the weather quarter, about the
same distance from the sloop—he continued in that course
about five or six minutes, when he sunk again, and I saw him
to seven feet above the surface of the water, and his back
appeared to be composed of buaches or humps, apparently
Vou. Il.....No. 1. 21
oreve
162 Bigelow on the Sea Serpent.
about as large as, ora little larger than a half barrel; J think
I saw as many as ten or twelve, but did not count them; I
considered them to be caused by the undulatory motion of
the animal—the tail was not visible, but from the head to
the last hump that could be seen, was, I should judge, 50
feet. The first view I had of him appeared like a string of
empty barrels tied together, rising over what little swell of
the sea there was. What motion I could discern in the
body of the animal was undulatory, but he evidently moved
his tail under water, and the ripples produced by it indicated
a sweeping motion, making a wake as large as that made by
the sloop.
HAWKINS WHEELER.
Essex, ss. June 9th, 1819.—Then Hawkins Wheeler per-
sonally appeared, and made oath that the foregoing affida-
vit by bim subscribed, contains the truth, the whole truth,
and nothing but the truth. Before me,
ae THEODORE EAMES, Justice of the Peace. ©
I, Gersham Bennett, of Fairfield, in the county of Fair-
field, and state of Connecticut, mariner, on oath declare,
I looked. at the anchor stock at the time, and formed my —
‘i
ppinion by comparing the two objects. The weather was
very clear and good, and the water almost calm ; and I had,
I think, as good a view of the animal as if J had been with-
in two rods of him. The colour of the animal throughout,
Bigelow on the Sea Serpent. 163
as far as could be seen, was black, and the surface appeared
to be smooth, without scales—his head was about as long
as a horse’s and was a proper snake’s head—there was a
degree of flatness, with a slight hollow on the top of his
head—the eyes were prominent, and stood out considerably
from the surface, resembling in that respect the eyes of a
toad, and were nearer to the mouth of the animal than to
and from the vessel, as if taking a view of some object on
board. I went up on the rigging, for the purpose of taking
a view of him from above ; but before 1 had reached my
Station, he sunk below the surface of the water, and did not
appea: n.
ae ne “3 GERSHAM BENNETT.
Essex, ss. June 9th, 1819.—Then Gersham Bennett per-
sonally appeared and made oath, that the foregoing affidavit
by him subscribed, contains the truth, the whole truth, and
nothing but the truth. fore me, ; *
ae THEODORE EAMES, Justice of the Peace.
The substance of Pantopidan’s account of the Serpens mar-
tnus Magnus, contained in his History of N orway, pub-
lished in 1747, (from a Boston Newspaper.)
_ “ The Serpens Marinus Magnus is a wonderful and terri-
ble Sea monster, which deserves to be noticed by those who
are curious to look into the works of the great Creator. It
is usually in July and August he appears, and when itis
calm”—“ His head was more than two feet above the sur-
face of the water and resembled that of a horse. Beside
164 Revue Encyclopédique, &c.
the head and neck, seven or eight folds or coils of the ani-
mal] were distinctly seen, and were about a fathom apart.”
This is the statement of a Capt. De Ferry and others, who
saw the serpent with him. The account from others, who
are said to have seen this monster of the deep, states, that
when it was calm, it lay on the water in many folds; and
that there were in a line with the head some small parts of
the back to be seen above the surface of the water when it
moves or bends; and that at a distance these appear like so
many casks or hogsheads, floating ina line, with a consider-
“that many other persons on the coast of Norway had seen
the Sea Serpent—and thought it a strange question, when
seriously asked, whether there were such an animal in ex-
istence ; being as vy persuaded of the fact, as of the exis-
tence of an eel or co
Extract of a letter to the Editor, dated Boston, April 8, 1820.
_Thave lately received a letter from Sir Joseph Banks,
Sey by his own hand,* in which he expresses his full
n the existence: of our Serpent of the Sea, and
not ey as it regards himself, but his friends, and he is
grateful for every new communication I have given him on
that subject, and writes with the same a that he
did several years ago although he is now very
5. Revue Encyclopédique &e.
Mr. Julien of Paris, has favoured me with various pub-
lished works of which he is either author or editor. Among
these interesting productions I can now notice only one,
- and that brie
e “Revue E neyclopédique ou analyse Raisonnée des
productions les plus remarkables dans la literature, les sci
ae? ae les arts” published Naar is a very able and in-
ng fp a good degree the in-
collate light of the world, and pant %s much impartiality
* Sir Joseph Banks, President of the Royal Society of London, the com-
panion of ee Cot, is now at pte! barre ed Sood but still eget in
ful knowledge rd.
ty
Se
- American Verd Antique Marble. 165
and decorum, which appear to be effectually secured by the
simple expedient of having the names of the authors attach-
American Verd Antique Marble.
“* United States—An excellent quarry of Marble has
been discovered in the vicinity of New: Fisvtit province
(town) of Milford. A traveller in Connecticut pronounces
is marble to belong to the beautiful species which is in
Europe called Verd Antique, and which is found only in
the palaces of the great, and in cabinets of natural history.
Indeed, says this traveller, it surpasses in beauty all that I
ve seen of this kind. It isa great advantage that this
oP furnishes very large blocks, and that it is inexhausti-
>
Mr. Brongniart of Paris, the celebrated mineralogist, in
a letter now before me, speaking of the Milford Marble of
which I sent him, among others, a polished specimen, says—
“it forms one of the ornaments of my cabinet, and is referred
‘ith great precision to my Ophicalce Veinée,’”* (or verd
antique marble.) Some persons in this country confounding
the verd antique marble with the verd antique porphyry, bave
denied to the Milford marble its proper rank : a rank which,
truth requires me to say, has always been assigned it in the
ctures | It was discovered in 1811, by a member of
the mineralogical class, while I was out with them on an
excursion for instruction and observation. The farmers had
Made stone walls of it for almost two centuries, without sus-
pecting what it was.
~ Professor Kidd of the University of Oxford, to whom I
Sent a specimen, and whose opinion I asked as to its geo-
logical character, says—<‘ the serpentine would by some be
referred to a transition series; by others to a primitive :
but Iam happy in thinking that the terms Primitive and
Transition are daily becoming of less importance.”
. iterally a veined serpentine limestone, and among the yn nymes in
L s i
Mr. Brongniart’s treatise on the nomenclature of rocks, the ophicalce
Veinée is called Verd Antique.—Ed.
166 Miscellaneous Articles of Foreign Intelligence.
-T purpose in a future number to give an account of the
New-Haven and Milford Marble, which is equally inter-
esting in its relations to the arts and to geology.— Ed.
6. Miscellaneous Articles of Foreign sean 8 3 commu-
nicated by Dr. J. W. Wes
In France—The study of Organic remains continues to
advance rapidly. Brongniart is at the head-and is the most
able man for Floetz (or secondary) formations, but for
Primitive, Brochant is superior. rongniart carries his
views about coal formations so far, that he looks upon them
as grea t Fresh Water deposits, froni their sometimes con-
taining shells like the lime or river water shells ; they are
found for example at Entreveres, in the Alps, at Falkirk,
and Alloa in Scotland, &c. On the other hand, following
this step, Mineralogists have already shown the great aggre-
he of rolled flints and sand between the Jura and the
ires, to he a succession of fresh water and salt water depo-
sitions, or, at least three or four very different deposits ;—
and the vik limestone they have divided into three, lime-
oe with Gry pWites, and two others above which is the
eson.
* Rrboeniatt delineates and describes all the impressions
of plants which he can get, and every lover of the Science
must wish that he may be enabled to publish so fine a work.
- Daubuisson has in the press, Elements of Geology in in two
vols. itwill be a good work.
Humbolt is preparing a similar work.
Beudont, who has already, in the Journal des mines, given
many interesting facts respecting the crystalization of | salts
under different circumstances, is about publishing a journey
through Hungary, where he spent six months, and found
ene formations, a newer Sienitic and Volcanic ~
sige
Porphyry mation; a red Sand ston ne, with masses or beds
of a pehstone precisely like that of Arran, excepting fiat
the latter occurs in veins ; a chalk formation, a part of the
Pics formation, and a volcanic formation deposited and ar-
ranged in beds Bu na ; the pumice, in these singular wa-
tery arrangements having often, at first sight, the appearance
of chalk ; his work will pee much light on Geology.
|
|
Miscellaneous Articles of Foreign Intelligence. 167
Dr. Maccullock’s account of the Hebrides is nearly fin-
ished.*
Jameson’s Philosophical Journal is much devoted to
Mineralogy, and the numbers which have appeared do hina
great credit.
Heron de Villefosse has been enlarging his work, and his
Geological Map of Saxony and the North of Germany is
said to be very fine. :
Berzelius has lately been at Paris and republished his
new system.
--Von Buch is busy with his work on Teneriffe in which
many interesting discussions on Volcanic products will be
introduced. ‘The Baron lately dislocated his arm in leap-_
ing from a German stage coach. -
_ Mr. Jameson has published his ew system of Mineralo-
gy, after the external characters only ; but there are about
thirty new substances, he has not mentioned: his Geology
is not yet out. :
Mr. Greenough is now the chief man of the Geological
Society, and is preparing a Geological Map of England ;
but what shall we think of his late small work comprising
the best observations of a Von Buch, Brongniart, Xe. (with
others of less weight) in which he expresses the opinion, that
there is nothing constant in Geology, and that there is no
stratification of rocks! eGo :
Bakewel is the principal teacher of Mineralogy in Eng-
Mr. Brocchi’s work on the Appenines, and especially on
the petrifactions, is fine. :
_ Mr. Blainville’s determination of the impression of fishes,
ma periodical work, will be useful.
Specimens from China, the Cape, India and Senegal are
how most prized in France, and many of much interest have
been received. ie : .
t the Cape there is Mica Slate with granite veins. In
Senegal much Iron stone, probably in a red sand stone
ormation,
ur Chromate of Iron is not likely to be much prized
how, as Dr. Heber found plenty in the Shetland Islands, of
which he is about publishing an account,
* Since published. —Ed.
168 Noie on the Map of Mountains.
7. Curious fact respecting Animal Povson.*
It seems highly probable, that an infuriated serpent will
secrete the poisonous fluid much more promptly than when
ina placid state. And it is no doubt equally true, that
many animals, which under ordinary circumstances are per-
fectly innoxious, become armed with a salivous poison
when infuriated : a truly mexplicable phenomenon. Man
himself becomes somewhat poisonous when highly excited
by anger. Dr. S. Brown informed me that he has had
patients under his care, who had been bitten in personal
combats, and whose wounds exhibited every symptom of
poison, pertinaciously resisting the ordinary modes of cure ;
but in these cases, the deleterious fluid is the saliva, (but it
has been supposed that dots ane of the tartar from th
teeth remaining in the wound, were the cause of the appar-
ent poison,) whereas in thie serpent, as is well known, it is
a peculiar secretion deposited in its proper recipient cavity.
8. Map shewing the a fess ofr the principal Moun-
ains on the Glo
Mr. Srktince<Sir,
as sometime since very much gratified at seeing pro-
Se of Mr. Timothy Swan, of Boston, for publishing by
subscription, a Mapt+ shewing the relative heights of all the
principal mountains in the world. Having lately been in,
Boston, I called on Mr. S. and subscribed my name.
plate I was pleased to find nearly finished. As the work
may not be known to many of your readers, allow me to
ing mind, is exceedingly valuable, as it presents at one view
we asp aaa rege geese ver of all the most cele-
numerous, ‘eueeteine all our most sievutnt summits.—
* This fragment should have been ficartad in Mr. Say’s memoir on her-
petology, but was accident tally omitted.
* The Map is about eighteen inches square.
Cabinet of Minerals. 169
From the appearance of the plate, there can be little doubt
of the work being equal in point of execution to the Eng-
lish Map, while the additions will render it far more valua-
ble to Americans. The publisher will, I trust, be remune-
rated by a very extensive and general subscription.
ours, &c.
A. B.
9. Cabinet of Minerals, for sale.
land, the Ferroe Isles and of the Azores, together with a com-
lete series of the geology of Great Britain, of the London,
aris and Isle of Wight formations—a very extensive suite
of Volcanic specimens—a geological suite of four hundred
specimens, from granite to gravel, from Freyberg, together
with a great variety of fossil remains, marbles, agates,
A series of models of crystals in wood, &c. The collection
was formed by a gentleman in Europe, and has been pro-
nounced second, enonk American cabinets,) only to that
at New-Haven. It is well worthy of the attention of col-
leges and universities. For further information enquire of
Col. G. Gibbs, New-York; B. Silliman, New-Haven, and
of Dr. J. W. Webster, Boston.
Remark.—This cabinet was advertised some time since
in the newspapers, and an impression was received, by
some persons, that it was Col. Grpgs’ collection. It is suf-
ficient to say that this was an error. Col. Gibbs’ Cabinet
is still in Yale-College, and has been, recently, (with his ap-
probation of course) removed to a new and commodious
room, fitted up for its reception, and sufficiently capacious to
Contain also the College Cabinet, and to receive an Ameri-
can one, which is forming, and the infant collection of the
American Geological Society. oh
he room is eighty-four feet long by forty in width, and
nearly twelve in height; it is finely lighted and exhibits the
Specimens in a very advantageous manner.—Ed.
Vor. II.....No. 1. 22
170 American Cinnabar and Native Lead.
10. American Cinnabar and Native Lead.
Extract of a letter from B. F. Sricxyey, Esq. dated Port
Lawrence, Michigan J ortionys Mouth of the Miami id
the Lakes, June 17, 1819
Remark.—In Vol. [. page 433, mention is made of Amer-
ican Cinnabar and native Lead. I have procured from Mr.
Stickne . 8. Agent, for Indian affairs a statement of
facts. telaGva to: a subject, which, so far as regards the cin-
nabar, i is sO Important, and.as regards the phiine lead, is so
curious, that I have not been w illing to abridge the state-
ment. Some of the mercurial sand which Mr. Stickney
Sincd in his letter was puloraunatgly lost, so that I have
never seen a specien.—
Cinnabar.
It is true, that there is in this vicinity, a large diges ict of
country abounding with sulphuret of Mereury, | more or less
interspersed through the soil, in the state of a black and ved
cinnabarine sand, and in one place, the genuine red cinna-
bar occurs in ihe, form of an impalpable pow der or in sma.
poy and grains, interspersed in banks of clay. This is
: mouth of the Vermilion river, discharging itself in-
to oy Lake Erie, about eighty miles so uth cast of this place.
From the mouth of the Vermilion, round the whole shore
of the western end of Lake Erie, on the shores of Detroit
river, Lakes St. Clair, Huron, and Michigan, the banks are
streaked with small gr of this black and red sand of Cin-
the ore of mercury, to find a joa level, in ronformity i
its much greater specific gravity.
Ce
American Cinnabar and Native Lead. 171
Native Lead.
As the existence of native lead has been so much dis-
puted, I will give you a full history of the circumstances that
led to the discovery, and the evidence of its existence.
In the summer of 1812, a gentleman of unquestionable
veracity, by the name of Johnston, a clerk in the store
kept by the United States, for the purpose of Indian trade,
at Fort Wayne, but not at all acquainted with mineralogy,
told me that he, in company with five or six persons more,
had found in the bed of the Anglaize river, near its mouth,
a stone of uncommon appearance, and great specific ¢: vi-
ty, and weighing thirteen pounds. ‘The description which
he gave of its colour and of the form of crystals, correspon-
ded with galena; but he stated that there were some soft
metallic spots, that might be cut with the same ease as lead,
and had the appearance of that metal; that the stone was
broken, and he and several others of the party took pieces
of it. I desired to see the piece which he had; but upo
search, found it to have been misplaced. About one year
t
[tried its fusibility by the blow pipe, and submitted it to
tests. >
have sought in vain near the spot where it has been
represented that this specimen was found to find more. 1
think it is probable there is a large mass farther up the river,
that the piece found, was frozen into the ice, and floated
down with it to the place where the ice thawed. © é
In conformity to your request, I have given you as full
an account as in my power, of the sulphuret of Mercury
and native lead.
172 Means of Producing Light, &.
11. Means of Producing light, &c.
Extract of a letier from Prof. Ropert Hare, M. D. of Phi-
9.
ladelpia, to the Editor, dated Dec. 30, 181
I believe I mentioned in a letter to you last summer, that
i had rendered the flame of Hydrogen luminous|ike that of
oil, by adding a small quantity of oil of turpentine to the
usual mixture for generating that gas.* When the ingredi-
ents are at the proper temperature, the light is greater f
_ think than that produced by Carburetted Hydrogen.
Ihave lately found that the addition of about 3, of the
same substance to alcohol will give this fluid the property of
burning with a highly luminous flame, and that there is a
certain point in the proportions at which the mixture burns
without smoke like a gas light.
his observation may be of use where spirits are cheap,
as in our western states, and even in the northern parts of
the Union where it is made from potatoes.
It might be serviceable to morals if the value of this arti-
cle could be enhanced by a new mode of consumption.
It is in my power to send you a drawing and engraving of
what I call the caloriphorus, by analogy with Volta’s Elec-
trophorus. In this there is a self regulating reservoir of hy-
- drogen on a better construction than Gay Lussac’s, and the
ignition is effected by a small calorimotor.
I have likewise an improved Eudiometer or gas metre.
A recurved tube with a capillary opening at the end of
the crook is furnished at the other with a sliding rod gradu-
ated to two hundred parts. Being filled with water or mer-
eury, the drawing out of the rod causes air proportionably
to pass in, or if the point be previously within a bell glass
holding gas, this will be drawn in.
I have five different forms applicable to the various rea-
gents, used for analysis of gases. .
he caloriphorus has a contrivance by which the hydro-
gen and oxygen may be exploded by the ignition of a wire,
instead of a spark, either in a common Eudiometer ©
Volta, or in that above described.
* This fact is mentioned by Mr. Morey also, in the present No.—Ed-
ae
Troy Lyceum. Carlisle Mineral. 173,
12. Troy Lyceum.
In November, 1818, “a few citizens of Troy who had
attended Mr. Eaton’s lectures on Bot tany and Geology,”
associated for mutual improvement in the various depart-
ments of natural history, and for the purpose of forming
siiliectikg of specimens. This institution has been recent-
ly incorporated by the Legislature of Nails and a
lectureship created in it, which is now filled y Mr. Eaton.
We understand that a considerable cabinet is S ady col-
sik yang that many of the members of the institution are
Bstablished | in a flourishing and opulent town, patronized
by some of its most respectable and influential inhabitants,
Lyceum of New-York, and with other similar in
in our principal cities, vaill add to the stock of "Aniiens
science and do us honour.*
13, Fibrous Sulphat of Barytes fom: Carlisle, thirty-four
miles west of Albany
is Carlisle mineral was supposed by many to be sul-
pi of strontian. From my first seeing it, in July, 1818,
expressed the opinion that it was fibrous sulphat of ba-
tytes, (especially after finding its specific gravity to be
4-50,) of which variety I had a foreign specimen : and this
A communication sonteining. eutegs from the minutes 4 the Troy
pints dated January 25th, 1819, was rezeived, and would have been
ripening had it not been soon bijacs cershi that sian prominent subject of
= ane
sega was duly transmitted to the Lyceum. Having received no intima-
since, as to the ultimate opinion of that body, I have kept the commu-
cabin n file.
It wil a subsequent a Ff that the nature of the hae?
mineral is now ar ag ascertained, and that I have extracte ed son ee is
aeeg to it and to other eat from Ba “Tro
Or his pupils under his direc
174 Carlisle Mineral.
derstand that Prof. Dewey was of the same opinion. In
the mean time, Prof. Cooper, of Philadelphia, who at first
believed the mineral to be sulphat of strontian, wrote me an
account of experiments, which had induced him to change.
his opinion ; but it does not pets from his letter, or ne
. MacNeven’s mention of own results in his atom
theory, that either of these sii was acquainted with
my opinion and analysis, which were communicated only
to my classes, and by letters to a few friends ;* or with Dr.
Torrey’ s analysis, read before the New-York ‘Lyceum early-
in the present year. Prof. Hare writes me that he finds
the mineral to be sulphat of barytes, so that now there is
no difference of opinion respecting it.
In an extract from the minutes of the Troy Lyceuni,
forwarded to me by their gg the following facts are
stated on the authority of Mr.
he fibrous sulphat of coat is found in the town of
Carlisle, Schoharie county, about eight miles s a N. W.
direction from the Court-house, three miles W. of the
Schoharie Kill, three miles S. W. from Sloan’s Village, and
thirty-four miles W. of Albany.
It is in the N. E. face of a hill, which is about seventy
or eighty feet high, and three-fourths of a mile in extent.
crosses the farms of Jacob Dickinson, Andrew
Gein, and Abraham Mosier.
teological Position —The fibres of the mineral are ver-
tical, and in length from half an inch to two inches, standing
between the layers of a soft argillaceous slate. By the
lateral adhesion of the fibres, very extensive strata are
ormed. As fragments are found in the soil on the side of
the hill through its whole extent, there can be little doubt
that the strata of this mineral are as extensive as the hill
itself. The rock in which it is imbedded is overlaid with
compact limestone, which contains impressions of shells,
mostly pectenites.
IT refrained from mentioning rg opinion and experiments in this Jour-
nal, because I bad and still have reason to Boge that there isa real
sulphat of bce tian found farther west in the 8 tate of Ne wYork, gece thiuk-
ing it possible that some of ong _ tlemen had eheyenag oy the two, E waited
for Guthes efocanchione
”
Red Sand Stone formation of North-Carolina. 174
Uses—Though the colour of the mineral is blue or
bluish grey, the fragments which have for some time been
exposed to air and light, assume an appearance in some
1 d
the softest of iron. He performed also the process of bra-
zing several times, by which he proved its very great supe-
viority to borax in two respects; its requiring a much
smaller quantity, and its remaining more fixed in a high
eat.” ete
14. Red Sand Stone formation of North- Carolina. —
Evtract of a letter from Professor D. Outmstean, of the
College at Chapel-Hill, North-Carolina, dated Feb. 26,
4
An extensive secondary formation has lately been discov-
ered very near us. On the road between this place an
Raleigh, travelling eastward, we come to it four miles from
the College ; but at another point it has been discovered
within two miles of us. It is a sand stone formation. The
varieties are the red and grey. I have traced it through the
counties of Orange and Chatham, and have ascertained its
breadth, between this and Raleigh, to be about seven miles.
Its direction is a little west of south. If a line be drawn
through the Richmond bason parallel to the great_moun-
tains west of us, it will pass through this formation. Hence,
raust we not regard this as_a continuation of the great sand
stone formation, which W. McClure has traced to the Rap-
pahannock? Must we not consider the Richmond bason
and this as forming parts of the same formation? The va-
tiety found nearest to this place is not unlike the old red
sand stone found in your vicinity.
It was natural to look for coal here, and I have for some
time directed the atterttion of my pupils, and of stone-cut-
176 Sidero-graphite-—Fetid fluor Spar.
ters tothis object. Two or three days since one of the lat-
tme a handful of coal, found in this range, on
Deep River, in Chatham county, about twenty miles south
of this place. The coal is highly bituminous, and burns
with a very clear and bright flame. It is reported that a
sufficient quantity has already been found to afford an ample
supply for the blacksmiths in the neighborhood.
It is my intention to employ the first leisure I can com-
mand in collecting more precise and extended information
respecting the formation. :
15. Sidero-graphite.
Extract of a letter from Dr. Torrey, of New-York.
I have just discovered a new mineral, or one which I can-
not find described. It is a compound ‘of metallic iron and
pnlege: It somewhat resembles laminated plumbago.
ts specific gravity is 5-114; is attracted by the magnet;
burns when heated intensely, and scintillates ! dissolves im
great measure in diluted sulphuric acid, giving out much hy-
drogen gas. I pare analysed a small piece, and found, aren
54-25, plumbago 11°50. I know of no such mineral, and I
have called it “Bilecoievdubete it is found at Schooley’ s
mountain, N. J. but the exact locality is kept a secret by the
person who found it, as the mineral is supposed to be some-
‘thing valuable! I shall soon, however, be able to procure
two or three small specimens, and I will send you one.
16. Fetid fluor Spar. .
Mr. Augustus E. Jessup, recently attached to the expe-
dition up the Missouri, has visited the locality of fluor spar
near Shawnee* town, Illinois, (Vid. vol. I. p. 52,) and finds
this mineral very abundant and beautiful. He has observ-
ed, as he informed us, that this mineral is fetid by friction
or percussion, and that even the fracture through a natu
cleavage will diffuse the fetid odour around to the distance
of two feet or more. We have repeated and confirmed Mr.
Jessup’s observation.
* Not far from the confluence of the Ohio and Missisippi.
ee ee
i” *
Effects of Cold.—Stromnite—a new Mineral. 177
17. Effects of Cold.
Dr. Lyman Foot, of the United States’ Army at Platts-
burgh, writes, “ the thermometer has frequently stood here
during the late winter at from 15° to 17° of Fah. below 0,
in the morning, and at 10° and 12° below all day. It isamu-
sing these cold nights to hear the ice on the lake crack ; the
report is like that of a six pounder, and the ice instantly
‘opens to the width of ten or fifteen feet. Whatis the cause
of it? Does ice contract on cooling below a certain tempera-
ture? The snow has been here four and five feet deep.”
Remark.—Although in the act of congealing, and for
eight or ten degrees above freezing, cooling water expands,
there can be no doubt that when ice is once formed, it con-
tracts by cold like other bodies. Hence the cracks and re-
ie, always perceived even on natrow rivers
akes, during the prevalence of intense cold.* hen this
ae contraction extends over a great surface, as on lake
shamplain, we might well expect that the accumulated ef-
fect would produce very loud explosions, and very wide
fissures ; so wide as occasionally to swallow up, instantly, the
unwary travellers who, with sleighs and horses, adventure by
night, and sometimes even by day, upon the smooth surface
of our great northern lakes. When the weather grows warm
again before the ice melts, the fissures close and sometimes
even overlap, owing obviously to expansion.—Ed.
18. Stromnite—a new Mineral.
From Dr. Th. S. Traill of Liverpool, we have received
a printed paper read by him before the Royal Society of
Edinburgh, April 20, 1817. It contains an able report of
the characters &c. and composition, of a new mineral from
rkney, to which Dr. Traill has given the name of Strom-
nite. This mineral consists according to Dr. Traill’s anal-
ysis, of carbonate of strontites 68-6—sulphate of barytes 27°5
—carbonate of lime 2-6—oxid of iron 0-1=98-8 and the
loss, of 1:2, in the 100, is attributed to water.
* These cracks are not to be confounded with those which, during the
congelation, proces
between the he
Vor. IB....No. 1.
¥
178 German Correspondent.—LExploring Expedition, &e.
19. German Correspondent.
‘We have perused, with pleasure, the first numbers of the
German Correspondent, an occasional miscellaneous paper
published in N ew-York, and devoted to German literature
and science, with which it is the aim of the very respecta-
ble Editor to bring his countrymen better ie roe The
dee} is well worthy of encouragement, and the more so,
ermans appear particularly well disposed award
the Vited States.
20. Exploring Expedition.
We are informed that Gov. Cass of Michigan, aided by
D. B. Douglass of the corps of Engineers, one of. the
assistant Professors at the West Point Military Academy,
_ and pres, will proceed very soon, on an expedition along
the southern and western shores of lake Superior, an
through the district of country generally between lake Mi-
ane and the Missisippi, and the head waters of that river.
connexion with negociations on Indian affairs, every
vikeccabNs degree of attention will be bestowed on the na-
tural Say ce of the country—on its mineralogy—botany,
geoprap We anticipate, from this source much val-
ab! sifeematot:
21. Mermaid.
Extract from the log book of the ship Leonidas, sailing
From New-York — ye Asa Swift master ; May
1817. Lat. 44°, 6’ nort BS
_ First part of the day light variable winds and cloudy ; at
two P. M. on the larboard quarter, at the distance of about
half the ship’s length, saw a strange fish. Its lower parts
were like a fish; “its ‘belly was all white ; the top of the
back brown, and there was the appearance of short hair as
far as the top of its head. From the breast upwards, it had
a near resemblance to a human being and looked upon the
observers very earnestly ; as it was but a short distance from
the ship, all the afternoon, we had a good opportunity to
observe its motions and shape. No one on board ever sa¥
the like fish, before; all believe it to be a Mermaid.
Bubbles blown in Melted Rosin. 179
The second mate Mr. Stevens, an intelligent young man,
told me the face was nearly white, and exactly like that of
a human person ; that its arms were about half as long as
his, with hands resembling his own ;_ that it stood erect out
of the water about two feet, looking at the ship and sails
with great earnestness. It would remain in this attitude,
close along side, ten or fifteen minutes at a time, and then
dive and appear on the other side. It remained around
them about six hours. Mr. Stevens also stated that its hair
_ was black on the head and exactly resembled a man’s; that
below the arms, it was a perfect fish in form, and that the
whole length from the head to the tail about five feet.
ommunicated by Mr. Elisha Lewis of New-Haven, a
respectable merchant. ee
22, Bubbles blown in melted Rosin. .
The following curious fact is mentioned in a letter to the
Editor, from Mr. Samuel Morey, of Orford, N. H. :— |
If the end of a copper tube (a pipe stem will answer,) be
dipped in melted rosin, at a temperature a little above that
of boiling water, taken out and held nearly in a verticular
position, and blown through, bubbles will be formed of all
possible sizes, from that of a hen’s egg to those which can
hardly be discerned by the naked eye ; and from their sil-
very lustre, and reflection of the different rays of light,
they have a pleasing appearance. Some that have been
formed these eight months, are as perfect and entire as when
firstmade. They generally assume the form of a string of
beads, many of them perfectly regular, and connected by a
very fine fibre—but the production is never twice alike. If
filled with hydrogen gas, they would probably occupy the
upper part of the room.
In a letter to Mr. Morey, the Editor attributed the for-
mation of these bubbles to the common cause, viz. the dis-
tension of a viscous fluid by one that is aeriform; and their
permanency to the sudden congelation of the rosin, thus im-
prisoning the air by a thin film of solid matter, and prevent-
ing its escape. ;
The temperature at which the bubbles are formed, being
very low, even this very thin rosinous globe, might be strong
enough to resist the small atmospheric pressure arising from
the condensation of the included air by cooling.
%.
180 Effect of Temperature on human feeling.
rosin bubbles is beens correct. A little il came
nning to me one evening, with, as she said, about two
thirds of a string she had formed from the rosin of one of
the stove lamps, while burning. It consisted of twenty-two
or — beads, each about one third of an inch long
and one fourth of an inch in diameter, connected together
by a fine “bre; a than one eighth of an inch long. In
passing my eye repeatedly from one end to the other, I
uld not discover any difference in cs length, form, or
size, or in the distance they were apart, except two or three
at one end. Considering that the temperature of the rosin,
and the materials, and the pressure are always the same, I
have no idea what governs the formation of the bead differ-
ent from that of the fibre. When I mentioned it to you, I
did not suppose it was new, and if so, I thought it very un-
certain whether you would think it worth noticing in the
Journal.
23. Effect of temperature on hudion feeling.
. —.. rg in a letter to the Editor, remarks *
“In England, the only natural temperature that is agreeable’
lies a "60 and 70°, so that when the thermometer is
above 70, the inhabitants begin to feel uncomfortably warm,
and when i it is below 60, they begin to approach the fire. In
this clima: te, (lat. 35,40, N. long. 79, 3, W.) we do not feel
dseoriforiably warm until the thermometer is above 80;
and we begin to kindle fires when it is below 70. It would
seem therefore that our standard in this respect is 10° high-
er than it is in England ; and that we do not suffer more by
a heat of 90, than the people of England do by a heat of 80.
Dr. Black also remarks, that, in Scotland, the thermome-
ter rises, in moderately warm summer air, to 64°. Accor-
ding to this account, what would be esteemed moderately
warm summer weather in Scotland, would he penne
= to the external circumstances in which it is placed.
N. B.—Many more small articles, localities of Pipa notices of books,
Spinvesies, &e. are necessarily postponed.—Ed
AMERICAN
JOURNAL OF SCIENCE, &c.
GEOLOGY, MINERALOGY, AND TOPOGRAPHY.
—<>- —
Arr. 1. Account of the Geology, Mineralogy, Scenery, &¢.
of the secondary region of Now-York and New-Jersey,
and the adjacent regions ; by James Pierce.
Tue secondary region of New-Jersey and of New-
York situated West of the river Hudson and southeasterly
of the Highlands extends from North to South about sixty
miles, with an average breadth of thirty. It exhibits an in-
teresting diversity of surface, embracing fresh and salt wa-
ier alluvial, extensive valleys and plains, alternating with
mountain ranges of considerable elevation; and among a
variety of interesting minerals peculiar to secondary regions,
this tract presents many of great utility, and inexhaustible
in quantity.
On the eastern border of the abovementioned seconda-
ry region and adjacent to the Hudson, is observed a promi-
nent mountainous range. This elevation rises gradually
from Bergen point, and pursues for sixty miles, a nearly un-
interrupted course, terminating near the Highlands. In the
State of New-Jersey, it has an average width of two and
a half miles, with a summit of table land ; from its western
brow there is a gradual descent to the alluvial valley of the
Hackensack and Passaic ; on the eastern side it is uniform-
Y either steep or precipitous. At Wehawk, four miles
North of the city of Jersey the mountain presents a P ag
pendicular wall of about 200 feet elevation above the Hud-
son ; from this summit an extensive prospect appears, of
the harbour of New-York, of a diversified country, and of
ou. IT.....No. 2. 24
182 Account of the Geology, Mineralogy, Scenery, &c.
works of art exhibited in a great city contrasted with the
adjacent wood-cla cin rocky mountains, where nature appears
in her rudest stat
From Wehiiek to Fort Lee an alternation of precipitous
ledges and steep declivities is seen, mostly clothed with
trees of varied verdure, but frequently displaying a rocky
surface ; the hills retiring here and there give place we
narrow but fertile and well mulivated strips of ground u
which many neat dwellings appear, environed by fraitthess
and diversified crops, which are seen to advantage in con-
trast with the rocky eminence in the back- round. From
Fort Lee to the vicinity of Tappan, a distance of sixteen
miles, the mountain presents a great uniformity of aspect—
on its eastern face bordering on the summit, is seen an ex-
tensive unusual pregjpice called the Palisadoes of near 260
feet perpendicular altitude ; numerous vertical fissures are
observed in the rock, crossing each other at various angles,
forming columns of basaltic appearance. The face of
this ledge is in general divested a it ae but it is ne
and there seen in the crevices. ection of th
Palisado mountain is parallel with — river and is moe
North and South ;—the face of the ledge is slightly wa-
ving. From the base of this precipice to the river’s bor-
der, a distance of from three to four hundred feet, a steep
declivity is seen covered by angular blocks of stone fallen
from the pnt des—thi part is shaded by trees and bush-
es. ‘The s tof the Palisado mountain presents a sur-
face of slightly pie Si table land that pee rises to
the north, its average width about two miles. It is mostly
a wood-clad tract, as uncultivated as = Indian hier The
western side of the mountain is of gradual descent, cleared
and rendered productive; neatsandstone farm-houses range
near the base of the hill for twenty miles like a continued
village. From the western brow of this ridge is seen an
interesting variety of mountain ranges, rich, highly cultiva-
ted valleys, and extensive alluvial meadows through whieh
the Hackensack and its auxiliary streams pursue their
course.
The minerals of this mountain-range from Bergen Point
to its termination, are of a pretty uniform character. Coarse
secondary gree nstone, an aggregate of hornblende, feldspar
and epidote, is exclusively the summit rock in place. The
.
of New-York and New-Jersey, &c. 183
feldspar cannot readily be distinguished from quartz in a
aewly broken specimen of this stone as from irregular crys-
talization it does not present the fracture characteristic of
eldspar, but where the surface has been long exposed to
the air, the feldspar whitened by commencing decomposi-
tion, is apparent. The summit rock of the Palisado range
is not so dark as the greenstone of New-Haven, having less
hornblende but otherwise agreeing in external character and
geological relations.
‘Lhe only interesting crystalized mineral associated with
the greenstone of this range is prehnite. I have recently
discovered good specimens of that mineral in ledges of fine
grained greenstone that border the eastern shore of New-
specimen of compact prehnite five inches in thickness,
weighing six pounds—it was ascertained by Dr. Torrey to pos-
sess the uncommon specific gravity of 3145. Coarse green-
stone in place is observed,within a short distance of Bergen
point—it forms the nucleus of hills of considerable eleva-
tion five miles below the village of Bergen. Mural preci-
pices of coarse greenstone, gradually diminishing in alti-
tude border the eastern section of the peninsula to within
half a mile of the narrow sound that separates New-Jersey
rom Staten-Island. In these precipices I have noticed
ne
proaching the character of kaolin ; it is pulverulent, and of
2 grayish white, and does not form a paste with water. * It
‘and by Dr. Torrey to whiten and fuse when exposed
to heat ; it appears to be a suitable material for the manu-
mountain bordering the river, in many places, secondary “i
gillaceous shist, conglomerate, red, white, yellow and pur-_
s
184 Aecount of the Geology, Mineralogy, Scenery, &e.
aggregate of quartz and feldspar, often friable but some-
times very firmly combined, exhibiting winding vertical fis-
sures. A fine compact white sandstone, resembling the
Portland stone of England, is noticed in a few places as the
basis layer of the Palisadoes. The compact white sand-
stone is in repute for cellar walls, not absorbing moisture
as readily as the red freestone. The greenstone of the
Palisadoes is much used in forming docks; it is rarely
found in a decomposing state.
A metallic vein was worked at Fort Lee at the com-
mencement of the revolutionary war under the impression
_ that it contained gold. Doct. Torrey has ascertained that
the ore is pyritous and green carbonate of copper, the mat-
rix quartz and a silicious and calcareous breccia dipping un-
der greenstone. In the breccia numerous cavities of a reg-
most specimens containing pyrites.
The trees commonly met with on the above described
range, are different species of oak, walnut, chestnut, maple,
butternut, birch, gum, cedar, &e. The neighbourhood of
Fort Lee and many parts of the mountain is heavily tim-
bered.— Of berries the blackberry, whortleberry, raspberry
and strawberry are abundant.
The wild animals occupying these heights with almost
exclusive dominion, are the wild-cat, raccoon, fox, opos-
sum, rabbit and squirrel—The poultry yards at the wes-
tern base of the mountain are often annoyed by the fox
and opossum. Of venomous serpents the copper-head is
the most common, but the rattlesnake is sometimes seen O%
the Palisado range. Eagles and hawks are numerous—
they build their nests securely on the mountain cliffs. '
The elevation of the several points of the Palisado range
was ascertained by Capt. Partridge to be as follows.—
Fort Lee, 511 feet above the bed of the river ;—the bluff
of New-York and New-Jersey, &c. 185
spposite Spiten-Devil, 407 ;—a height a little farther Norfh,
but rising above the general level, 479 ;—Bompay Hook,
two miles above Closter landing, 517 ;—bluff North of
Bompay Hook, 549 ;—Closter mountain near Rock-land
County, 539.
I observed at several places on the summit of the Pal-
isadoes, large projecting columns of greenstone, with
from four to six well defined sides and in one or two
instances nearly regular hexahedral prisms eight or ten feet
in diameter, apparently extending to the base of the preci-
pice and retaining for a considerable distance their basalti-
torm aspect.
Atthe termination of the Palisadoes, Tappan sea, an ex-
pansion of the Hudson commences and extends northerly
ten miles with an average breadth of four. A clove pas-
sage through which winds Tappan creek, separates the Pal-
isado table land from a mountain range that gradually rises
north ; this chain has for four miles at its base the waters of
Tappan sea ; the eastern side seldom exhibits precipices ;
it is in many places elevated and cultivated—but the
summit displaying irregular elevations is generally crown-
ed with wood. Greenstone in no way differing from the
rock of the Palisadoes is exclusively the summit rock in
place. .The western side of the mountain is in general
steep, rocky and wood-clad. Adjacent to Tappan creek
an excavation is seen extending horizontally into the
greenstone rock of the mountain about 1000 feet, made in
searching for silver, but the vein was not found sufficiently
00d to be worth pursuing. Red sandstone is extensively
quarried on the eastern side of the mountain at various el-
evations,
ack. Land bordering Tappan sea, that embraces good
guarries of freestone is valued at 1500 dollars the acre.—
he mountain chain ranges in the back ground to the north-
west of Nyack, presenting moderate elevations—it —
Sweeps forward to the east bounding Tappan sea on its nor-
186 Account of the Geology, Mineralogy, Scenery, &.
thern side to Kedidika Hook ; it there takes a northwest
direction parallel with the river for four miles, rising abrupt-
ly from the water to a great height ; its ledges in many
places precipitous are composed of the materials observed
in the Palisado rock, with the addition in some parts of
the summit of a little sulphur rendering it friable. The
dred feet perpendicular height borders the summit. Sand-
stone in place is found on the side and at the base of the moun-
tain. Piles of dark angular blocks of greenstone in many pla-
ces occupy the sides of the mountain to the exclusion of ve-
getation. Puddingstone, containing smooth round pebbles
is frequently observed. From Haverstraw the greenstone
mountain ranges in a western course and sweeps with a di-
minished height to the vicinity of the Highlands, presenting to
n is
the eye a profile of wild and irregular eminences. Iro
tion of Rockland county was once contemplated. Rich
copper ore has been found not far from High Tower, but
the traces of it are lost. On the southern side of the
mountain running west from Haverstraw, the descent is in-
general gradual; much of the surface is cleared and culti-
vated and of a medium soil, well watered by numetous
springs ; large rolled masses of granite and gneiss rest OM
the mountain side, probably conveyed to this secondary re
gion from the Hizhlands by some convulsion of nature.—
Pectanites and other marine petrifactions have been found
on this ridge at considerable elevations ; fine grained trap
is met with at the base. ah
_ Westward of the Kedidica Hook range, and half a mile
from the Hudson is situated a mountain lake four miles 16
circumference, called Rockland lake ;—its surface is
feet above the bed of the river from which it is separated —
» of New-York and New-Jersey, §¢. 187
by a lofty ridge—the land elsewhere adjacent to the lake,
rises gradually, is of a good soil and well cultivated ; seve-
ral neat stone farm-houses are pleasantly situated on the
banks of this extensive sheet of water. The lake is well
stored with pike, yellow-bass, perch, sunfish, and suckers, but
there are few eels, and no catfish are found.
magnitude is seen to enter the lake, but it is the source of one
of the most considerable branches of the Hackensack. Fed
great depth and the warmth of its auxilary streams. Con-
densed by cold, the fluid on the lake’s surface. descends
and its place is supplied by warmer water from below ; an
interchange continues as is well known from the experi-
ments of Count Rumford and others, until the mass is re-
duced within eight degrees of freezing point, when being
no longer condensible by cold it remains stationary and the
surface is frozen. Ice being an indifferent conductor of
leat the fluid, below continues much warmer than the air.
The waters of the lake are soft and pure and as they repose
on a sandy bottom, no water-weeds or swamps are seen on
its borders except at the river’s outlet. The adjacent in-
habitants are not subject to the fevers and early fogs of au-
tumn ; the waters of the lake remaining colder than the
air, morning exhalations do not arise to be condensed. Veg-
etation bordering on the lake is seldom injured by pre-
~Anature frosts ; being protected probably by the then warmer
ar of the water. ‘The height of that part of the Kedidica
ok range situated between the lake and the river, is 640
feet above tide water, as calculated by Capt. Partridge. To’
Joseph Dederer Esq. a well informed resident of the nor-
thern bank of the lake, at whose pleasant and hospitable
Mansion I have passed many days, I am indebted for much
local information.
The elevation of Kedidica Hook is well calculated for
‘geological and geographical survey, uniting extension with
distinctness of view. The wood-clad Highland chain is ob-
Served ranging the horizon for fifty miles ; its course is from
Northeast to southwest ; the Newark and Pracknes moun-
188 Account of the Geology, Mineralogy, Scenery, &c.
tains faintly appear to the southwest. The Haverstraw
mountain is near you, with its camel’s back summit running
westwardly ; to the South the Palisadoes are seen. In the
immense valley embraced by these mountain ranges, the
hills and plains, the cultivated and wood-clad tracts, the
lakes and streams are viewed upon the uneven map of na-
ture ; the greater part of this valley appeared in a good
state of cultivation. To the southwest of Tappan sea in
the direction of Hackensack and Pyramus, the country is
in general very level and inclining to sand, and well adapt-
ed for the use of gypsum, but this valuable manure is sel-
dom used by the farmers of this district ; sandstone pre-
dominates in'that tract. To the West of Kedidica Hook the
surface is more uneven and hills of considerable elevation
are seen adjacent to the Highlands mostly under cultiva-
tion. The Hudson at your feet with its expanse of waters
and numerous bays, is seen for a great distance ; its prim-
itive eastern bank rising gradually to mountain elevations
is thickly settled and most of the summits cleared. Fro
Haverstraw to Stoney-Point, a distance of five miles, and
from Haverstraw bay to the Highlands, in a northwest direc-
tion the country is in general level, the soil inclining to sand
is in many places underlaid by red sandstone. Good whet-
stones have been recently quarried in this part of the coun-
~The summit of Stoney-Point, once a distinguished mili-
tary post, exhibits in place rocks composed of green feld-
spar mottled with black mica, the feldspar however predom-
inating; a slight effervescence is produced by acids. On
the North side of this eminence a mineral is found which
appears to be composed of iron, alumine, silex and some
magnesia ; it occupies the mountain’s side and large blocks
detached are observed on the shore—it has the aspect of
an ore of iron. “This ferruginous rock embraces in veins 4
mineral containing much magnesia ; it is translucent at the
edges, the lustre waxy, the fracture splintery with a dar
green, unctuous surface, answering pretty well to the de-
scription of splintery serpentine ; its surface is dissolved
by diluted sulphuric acid, and epsom salts formed in pume-*
rous crystals ; this effect is not produced upon any other de-
scription of serpentine that I have elsewhere met with. The
peninsular situation and difficult ascent of Stoney-Point ren-
of New-York and New-Jersey, &c. : 389
dered it an admirable situation for a military post. At the
base of the mountain fine grained micaceous shist appears.
At Stoney-Point commences the primitive region. White
granular limestone is abundant in the ranges of hills to the
West and North of Stoney-Point; it is a continuation of
the rock of the same character that passes through New-
England, and is in great quantity near Verplank’s point.—
The country North of Stoney Point, adjacent to the river,
and extending half the distance to the Highlands is hilly
and rocky, and not extensively cleared ; for two miles, the
remainder of the distance, the North river running from
the northeast, washes the base of a wood-clad tract that
may be considered as making a part of the Highland chain ;
numerous streams descend the winding glens of the moun-
tain. ,
Rockland County is of a triangular form ; the inhabitants
are mostly of Dutch descent ; Dutch continues to be gene-
rally spoken—many families have not acquired the English
language. The Dutch of Rockland county have deserved-
ly acquired the character of being hospitable. This coun-
ty includes within its limits the first ranges of the Highland
chain ; from Rockland they cross New-Jersey and extend
to the Delaware, bounding the secondary region.
Two prominent mountain ranges running near each oth-
er intersect the interior of the secondary region of New-Jer-
sey. They take their rise adjacent to the primitive High-
lands two miles North of Pompton and runabout eighty miles
an almost uninterrupted semicircular course. The summit
rock in place is iidibecnty a dark colored, fine grained secon-
dary greenstone, resembling basalt ; it is frequently obser-
ved resting on conglomerate and sandstone—these rocks
are supposed to lie under most of the greenstone ranges of
Narslahsers the most elevated point of these mountains
_ issituated six miles northwest of Patterson, where a sugar-
f peak rises near 1000 feet above the level of the ocean.
Its trap rocks are generally covered by 2 thin mould that
exhibits a verdant surface, and a walnut grove without un-
derbrush, exclusively occupies the summit for an extent of
forty acres. 'Thiselevation commands a diversified and ex-
tensive view ; to the East, northeast and North the eye ran-
ges over a great extent of pretty level country. The wa-
summits of the Pracknes ridge are observed extending
Vou. IT.....No. 2. me 2
enees
190 Account of the Geology, Mineralogy, Scenery, &c.
in a northwest direction for several miles, with ponds of
magnitude and depth. A detached mountain range of con-
siderable elevation is situated north of the Pracknes ridge ;
it sweeps in a peoyieeeent course several miles, taking its
rise and termination near the Highlands. Many of the
summits are under csiissine and afford fine views of the
immense secondary valley situated between - Highlands,
the Hudson and the Pracknes ridge. Greenstone of a fine
grain is the rock in place, in which I found aban and stil-
bite imbedded. To the East of the Pracknes ridge is sit-
uated another section of the extensive greenstone ranges
called the Totoway mountain—this ridge rises near the
Pracknes mountain six miles from Patterson, and connects
itself with the Newark chain at the great falls ; it is in ma-
ny places free from rocks, but on the East, precipices © of
considerable extent and height with waving or denti iculated
mural faces are sometimes observed, presenting columns ap-
proaching to basaltic regularity, An insulated semicircu-
lar wall of greenstone, with projecting columns occupies a
summit of the Totoway ridge, bearing some resemblance
toa castle or fort in ruins. Sandstone quarries are ob-
— in several places at the base of the greenstone ridg-
quarry situated three miles northwest of Patterson,
sabes Pracknes mountain affords the best freestone of New-
a Fine red and gray oe embracing some mi-
alternates with eo dipping “under the
oe with a western iaslnseeiha of about 12 degrees.
s coal, inlayers of about two inches in thickness
has eae Leosgasstly found at this and other parts of the.
Pracknes ridge, in connection with sandstone and shale. This
neighbourhood exhibits many indications that more valua-
oe beds of this sscvcth cea exists below. Gneiss, granites
prehnite, agate, Harve and a mineral asec to
Gendbiption of cacholong. At the falls of the Passaic near
Patterson, perpendicular mural precipices of grrensitiey
with wide vertical fissures are observed, and am
masses at the base... The lower strata mop a rock aoe
much ra Ih. matter, es the place of
sete
of New-York and New-Jersey, &e. = 9.
‘green surface ascertained by Dr. Torrey to be chlorite. —
The layers beneath the amygdaloid are red and gray con-
glomerate connected with red sandstone, too porous for use,
as it absorbs much moisture and is broken by the expan-
Sive power of frost. Good freestone, in nearly horizontal
position, is the basis layer and forms the bed of the Passa-
ic. In many places the greenstone occupying the summit
appears buta few feet in thickness. The greenstone of
Patterson does not present columns assimilating to basalti-
form regularity. On the bank of the Passaic, adjacent to
the first manufactories, [ observed a well defined hexaedral
column of fine grained greenstone, a loose mass, about five
feet in length by two in diameter ; by the aid of a magnifier
y! greenstone compositionis apparent. Before the autumn of
818,prehnite, cal r, and carbonate of copper were
the only minerals observed imbedded in the greenstone ran-
ges adjacent to Patterson—at that period I met with, near
the falls, superior specimens of zeolite, stilbite, analcime,
and datholite, together with fine masses of prehnite ; ame-
thyst has been since discovered by Judge Kinsey, and Mr.
J.1. Foote, residents of Patterson—to these gentlemen I am
indebted for many useful facts. Prehnite I obtained in
¢c a | _ ; th
considerable lustre is reflected from narrow polished planes;
the colour in general a delicate light apple green, = in
0
‘Some specimens it is darker than the emerald.—It is und
imbedded in greenstone at the falls
a ‘The zeolite of Patterson is white, aggregated in fascicu-
lar sroups of delicate diverging fibres, and presenting de-
eS Sec ae, ee ee a Oe 2 f vari 5 1; i ,some-
192 Account of the Geology, Mineralogy, Scenery, &.
times diverging from a point, but often radiating from a cen-
tre ; with nitric acid it forms a jelly. Stilbite [I found asso-
ciated with prehnite, in distinct well defined pic ce some-
times in irregular groups, but often insulated.. The crysta-
line form may be described either as a flat ioep-aiina rec-
tangular prism, acuminated by four planes set on the lat-
eral edges, or as an elongated, six-sided table, bevelled on
jour of its lesser sides—the sides are proportioned as two is
to five, the colour white with pearly lustre ; the structure is
laminated ; itis translucent, ans than prehnite, and does not
form a je elly with acids. Since my discovery of datholite
at Patterson, I have sought in vain for this mineral else-
where in the greenstone ranges ; the gene of the falls is
the only locality for it yet found in this country—and there
is but one in Europe ;—its character was conjectured by
Col. Gibbs and ascertained by Dr. Torry by analysis. The
Patterson datholite will probably be regarded as a new va-
riety of the Norwegian mineral, differing in crystaline
form and proportion of constituent parts. ‘The above men-
tioned minerals are generally found Roneeeene with an
amended that embraces considerable
. Mural precipices of age fine grained fissile greenstone
are observed at the little falls of the Passaic,ifive Sales from
oe car ss seams cross each other at va-
rious angles in the ledges 2 Biving to many detached pieces a
regular prismatic form with t three and four sides, often trun-
ted on one or more of the lateral edges ; a tabular form
is common. Rock of similar character was often observed
in other parts of the Pracknes ridge. Organic remains from
the ocean, or petrifactions of orthoc cerites, madrepores, tu-
bipores, pectinites, terebratulas, encrinites, bilabites, ser-
pulites, and other species, generally in an argillaceous base,
resting on mountain and valley, I have found in the vicin-'
ity of Patterson, and in many parts of the secondary spose |
of New-Jersey.
The situation of Patterson is admirably adapted for a
manufacturing town—it is within four miles of sloop navi-
gation upon a never failing stream, that furnishes water pow-
er sufficient for two hundred mills, and mill-seats without
end; fuel is abundant and the market can be well supplied
from the beautiful and fertile valley through which winds the
Passaic. The streams auxiliary to this river embrace the
|
of New-York and New-Jersey, &e. 193
waters that for near one hundred miles of their course de-
scend eastward from the primitive mountains ; many of these
streams have their origin from extensive lakes and run forty
miles in mountainous districts.
From Patterson to Springfield the trap ridges are called
first and second Newark mountain and Caldwell mountain ;
their direction is nearly south, preserving a great uniformity
of altitude—as seen from New-York they mark an even
line on the western horizon—the eastern side is steep, the
western of gradual descent, a description applicable to
most of the mountains of New-York and New-Jersey—it
is observable at the alluvial Highlands of Neversink, the
primitive mountains of Staten-[sland and New-Jersey, the
green hills of Long-Island, at the Palisado and at the Shawan- |
gunk and Kattskill mountains. condary greenstone of a_
uniform character, no way differing from that at Passaic
falls is the only summit rock, in place, observed on the first
and second Newark mountain, but except in the vicinity-of
Patterson and Springfield, mural precipices are seldom seen.
The mountains side is, wherever ledges appear, covered with
small amphorous stones—red sandstone is observed in place
on the sides and at the base and is supposed to lie under
the Newark ranges. The eastern side of the mountain is
much of it cultivated to a considerable height ; the soil is
red from the disintegration of sandstone ; the summit and
western declivity is in general occupied by coppice, of small
ak, chestnut, walnut, butternut and cedars. The second
Newark mountain running a parallel course and distant
tain is presented an extensive, rich, thickly settled and high-
nearly level plain—the meadows and fields of grain pre~
194 Account of the Geology, Mineralogy, Scenery, &§c.
harbour of New-York, a part of Long-Island and Staten-
Island and a distant view of the ocean.
The valley situated between the Newark mountain and
the Bergen greenstone ridge is partly secondary, the rest
alluvial. In the secondary division, sandstone in nearly hor-
rizontal position, or waving with the surface is found al-
most every where on penetrating the earth—and fine red
and gray freestone alternates with shale at the sandstone
quarries of the Passaic and Second river. ituminous
‘coal in thin layers has been noticed, associated with argilla-
ceous shale in many freestone quarries adjacent to the Pas
saic; at the termination of the Newark mountain, at Spring-
_ near Belville a tooth near two inches in length was recent-
% foind on the freestone fifteen feet below the surface.—
opyer is observed in many partsof the New-Jersey secon-
dary ‘egion ; a vein of ore affording eight per cent of copper
has keen recently discovered near the Pisshic three miles
nortk of Bellville; the vein is now lost.—A rich mine was
formerly worked on the property of Col. Schuyler a mile
east of Belville, but the pasos of the shafts becoming too
exprsive, the works were relinquished. The matrix 0
talne fibres are collected in groups diverging from a poimt—
the colour is emerald green with silky lustre—tufts are see?
as a locality for oxide of titanium, but the only specimen
found here was in a small solid mass of quartz. Not 13
from Aquackinoek there is a copious mineral spring ; **
of New-York and New-Jersey, &e. 195
Primitive strata of mountains and vallies yet observed in
the United States ; none of the secondary ranges of New-
ersey pursue a course parallel with the primitive. The
i96 Account of the Geology, Mineralogy, Scenery, §c.
secondary ranges of nth Peer in one rena present
for miles an even summit of table land ; the Hig dg-
es display numerous. sugar-loaf i et ne a aun
profile, characteristic of primitive. The extensive se-
condary range commencing near Pompton and within
half a mile of the Highlands and extending in a semi-circu-
lar course, until it again approaches the Highlands, ex-
hibits in its direction and the aspect of its summits a proo
of the correctness of the above positions. The extensive
valley situated between the greenstone semi-circle and the
Highlands presents much fresh water alluvial—many of the
small hills of this tract have no rock in place—the alluvial
plain bordering the Passaic is in general extensive ; in some
places four miles in width—peat is observed in several oe
ces between the source of that river and the little falls;
considerable quantity is cut in this valley adjacent to be
Newark and Morriston turnpike ; the earth had been pene-
trated six feet without finding the bottom of the strata. The
level tract called Pompton plain near twenty miles in cir-
‘cumference and environed by mountains presents a deci-
ded fresh water alluvial—strata of gravel, sand, and clay,
without rocks in place are ee found in this dis-
trict wherev ever wells have been dug 5 it was probably at a
remote period th —The waters of the riv-
‘ers Pequanack, L "Ramapaugh pass through
this valley—the and much of the western part: of
Porn plain embraces about 1500 acres
of peat groun maa Fhe peat disclosed in digging a ons 8 of
four miles was called very good. In the southern part of
the plain good granular argillaceous oxide of i eo or_ pea
ore is raised from a space of about 200 acres. High
lands form the west and northwest boundary of eo plain’s ;
in other directions it is skirted by the Pacganack moun-
tain—this range pursues a serpentine course from North
see the exten vicinity of Morristown, separating in its
isu ni oecae ie ai . a aes i — rok in-plee
“in a state of ‘partial: <a eabibiting mural preci-
ie a of considerable sn ae extent 5 sandston ne rs place
eager arom
Se Tee ee Gee
of New-York and New-Jersey, &c. 197 *
tain—I_ found imbedded in the summit rock (generally in
decaying greenstone,) prehnite, zeolite, analcime, chalcedo-
ny, agate, amethyst, jasper, crystals of quartz, radiated and
smoky quartz and narrow veins of satin spar in jasper ; the
part of this range adjacent to Pompton plains may, perhaps,
from the abundance of these minerals be useful to the lapi-
dary as well as the mineralogist—the agates are from the size
of a pin’s head to three pounds weight, mostly chalcedo-
ny—the eyed and fortification agate I observed in a few
instances. I have a mineral specimen from this mountain,
found and presented to me by Judge Kinsey of Patterson,
that would probably weigh eight pounds (and is but half of
the imbedded mass)composed of agate, amethyst, and white
quartz, in which are observed numerous deep cuniform
cavities of uniform shape but differing in size—they were
probably occupied by some of the decaying zeolite ; re-
mains of lamine, probably of stilbite, are observed in
some of them: I obtained chalcedony two inches-in thick-
ness—the amethysts of Paquanack and Patterson display
the characteristic coloring, are limpid but seldom observed ~
in well defined crystals—some of the agates display a rich
variety of coloring. Bo ik :
Another greenstone range of minor extent is situated in
the great valley, the subject of examination ;—it rises near
Chatham, extends ten miles, and is called Long-hill. The
greenstone of this ridge is so subject to decay that rocks
seldom appear in place ; prehnite was here noticed. The
Passaic for several miles, near the base of the mountain,
pursues a sportive course, and at times concealed in groves,
then emerging, winds through extensive alluvial meadows.
About the centre of the Long-hill I observed mural pre-
cipices composed of what the farmers of New-Jersey call
shell rock, resembling the stone on the banks of the Rar-
iton. .
The secondary of New-Jersey accompanies the High-
lands to the Delaware. Near the village of Pluckemin and
South of the Highlands, an elevated greenstone range is 0
served extending in a western course. Another range passes
near Princeton towards the Delaware—the greenstone of
this mountain that came under my observation is both coarse
and fine, differing little from that of the Bergen ridge.
Vor. IL.....No. 2. 26
i98 Account of the Geology, Mineralogy, Scenery, &.
Between the river Rariton and the Delaware, a rock dif-
fering materially from the red sandstone of the Passaic, gen-
erally underlies both mountain and valley ; after approac
ing the surface, it extends North to the primitive and passes
without grain, to the breath it yields a strong argillaceous
odour, and uniformly decomposes when long exposed to air
and moisture.—I presume it is mostly composed of iron,
alumine and silex with perhaps a little sulphur ; it may be
called ferruginous shist—this rock is stratified, splitting
readily into thin brittle lamine, and is said to rest in some
places on good freestone. Copper is the only metal
sought for in this rock ; excavations are now making near
Brunswick for copper, and very recently new shafts have
been sunk at an old copper mine near Pluckemin—no ves-
sereot copper remain upon the surface at the old mine of
oodbridge. | :
Sandy-hill, an elevation situated between Brunswick and
Princeton exhibits an alluvial composition, resembling that
the hills of Neversink; sand, white and colored clay em-
bracing beds of ferruginous sand and pudding-stone are the
minerals that compose the ridge.
The alluvial borders the greenstone ridge from Bound-
brook to Springfield, to the West, in general it approaches
the Rariton within two miles and forms the bed of that river
a little below Brunswick. Wherever excavations have been
made in the alluvial tract South of the greenstone ridge,
strata of sand, gravel and clay are disclosed, but no quar-
ries or rocks in place. Ochres of good quality are observed
in many parts of this district, and at Uniontown near Spring-
field, compact peat of a superior quality, resting on marl and
supposed to extend through a morass of five hundred acres;
bones of the mastodon were discovered a few years since
in this swamp. I have'noticed extensive beds of pipe clay
in the alluvial tract situated between Woodbridge and Am-
boy ; it is infusible and is principally alumine, “having less
than twenty per cent of silex in its composition ;—it is white
ee ee ee
of New-York and New-Jersey, &c. 195
bituminous coal. ‘Fhe alluvial North of the Rariton
above described, is connected with an extensive alluvi-
ridge ; the depth of the alluvial is from twelve to twenty
feet—the basis is sand and shells like the shore of the sea—
several insulated groves of lofty swamp cedars remain in
the North part of the meadows. The whole tract was for-
merly covered with wood ; the bodies of trees but little de-
cayed are found at various depths. n attempt is now
making to reclaim a part of these meadows—it will be the
work of time to produce a compact soil by the decay of the
turf and other vegetable matter.—The enterprising propri-
etors, the Messrs. Swartouts, deserve success. singular
elevation called Snake-hill appears insulated in this verdant
ocean. It is wood-clad, rocky and precipitous on the east-
western base. From this eminence the Hackensack and
Passaic are seen for several miles slowly winding through
the meadows and almést slumbering on the plain; many
villages, ranges of mountains, and the distant ocean are ob-
served from this elevated ground. Greenstone, no way
differing from the summit roek of the Palisadoes is exclusive-
y the rock of this mountain, presenting in several places
mural precipices of considerable height ; cubic masses of
this rock are piled up at the southern base. Serpents were
formerly numerous at this place ; a few rattlesnakes and cop-
perheads remain in the southern ledges. To the North of
Snake-hill an insulated tract, three miles in length and one
in breadth is observed gradually rising from the meadows—
no rock in place appears on the surface, but good red and
$ray sandstone is quarried in several places. 1 found mica-
ceous iron ore abundantly diffused through the gray sand-
Stone ; pectinites and other marine petrifactions are seen
resting on the most elevated parts of the tract.
* *
. ’
200 | Singular position of a Granite Rock, &c.
Ant. IL. Account of a singular position of a Granite Rock,
by the Rev. Extras Cornewivus, (with a print.)
: Salem, Mass. April, 1820.
TO PROFESSOR SILLIMAN.
In communicating the following fact, it is not supposed
that any new evidence will be furnished of a distinction
which has long been made in the relative formation of dif-
ferent rocks. It is offered merely as another example of a
primitive limestone ; attended with such unequivocal indi-
cations-as to place its geological character beyond a doubt. ~
In the town of North-Salem, and state of New-York,
there is a rock, which from the singularity of its position has
long attracted the notice of those who live in its neighbor-
hood, and from its vicinity to the public road, seldom es-
capes the observation of the passing traveller. It has not,
however, it is believed, ever been described. It is situated
two miles East of the academy in North-Salem, within thir-
largest of them all, stands at the lowest point of that part of
the surface over which the rock is elevated, and supports its
other end. Notwithstanding the form of the rock is very
irregular, and its surface ctnsiderably uneven, its whole
weight is so nicely adjusted upon these seven small points,
one of which is six feet from the others, that no external
force yet applied has been sufficient to give it even a tremu-
lous motion.
_ But the singularity of its position is not the most irfterest-
ing circumstance which meets the eye of the geological ob-
server. Upon examination, he finds the rock and its pillars
<
Geology, Mineralogy, Scenery, &e. 201
composed entirely of different substances. The rockis gran-
ite; the pillars which support it are limestone.* The position
also, is anatural one. ‘There is no mountain or other ele-
vation near it from which the rock could have been thrown.
The hill in which its pillars are fixed, is penetrated with
limestone rocks, with here and there a specimen of granite
intermingled ; so that their position has not been altered by
any convulsion of nature. Here then, the Geologist finds
a limestone of whose early foundation he can have no
doubt. If granite be a primitive rock the strata on which it
rests must at least be as early in the order of nature. From
a specimen whose character is so indubitably fixed, we may
proceed with safety not only to name, but to describe the
species to which it belongs. Upon examination, the
scription of the limestone in question will not be found ma-
terially different from that which is laid down in books.
color is white ; grain, large ; highly crystalline ; present-.
ing a structure, very distinctly foliated—so much so that it
can easily be chipped into little rhombs which are semi-
translucent. There appear to be several ranges of it in
this town—in most instances they take a course northeaster-
ly and southwesterly, with very little if any inclination to
the horizon—and they generally have the same external
character. The country in which they lie is very obvious-
ly a granite country, furnishing that rock in almost every va-
ety.
Arr. III, Sketches of a tour in the countres of New-Haven
and Litchfield in Connecticut, with notices of the Geology,
Mineralogy and Scenery, &¢. by the Eprror.—( From
the papers of the American Geological Society.)
Tue following observations arose out of a journey un-
dertaken for other purposes and occupying only five days.
_. The manner is more diffuse and popular than the sub-
Ject might strictly demand, but this course was adopted
with the hope of alluring some degree of attention to the
* Specimens both of the Granite and the Limestone which have te
mentioned have been forwarded for your ex: tion. Annexed you —
its pillars as they are seen from the ro
202. Geology, Mineralogy, Scenery, &c.
subject of geology, on the part of readers who might be re-
pelled by a severer method. :
* * * * *
_ August 26 1817.—On a very fine morning, with an ex-
excellent travelling map of the State, and with the necessa-
ry instruments, I commenced my tour in a gig. ‘
pon the map (which was so folded as to lie constantly
open at the desired place) I wrote down with a pencil, the
names of the strata at the moment of their occurrence, stop-
ping frequently to break the rocks and to obtain specimens.
West-Rock, Secondary Greenstone Ranges, &c.
My course was nearly northwest on the great Litchfield
road. From New-Haven to West-Rock, two miles, the
country is alluvial, flat, sandy or gravelly.
At West-Rock, which is a fine precipice of greenstone,
reposing on sandstone, we enter a beautiful and very nar-
row valley stretching to a great distance nearly North and
South. On the right are the bold ranges of secondary
greenstone, about 400 feet high, with their rude perpendic-
ular precipices, which (except at the South end of West- .
Rock where they terminate, and where the cliffs have been
in some measure torn down and defaced to afford building
stone for New-Haven,) present a time-worn aspect ;—and by
£. se masses of broken rocks, which have accumu-
lated at their feet, and slope half or two thirds of the way up
their sides, evince that ages have passed since their cliffs
were first exposed to the weather, and to the destroying in-
fluences of time. As we go North, the cliffs become less dis-
tinet, although probably not less elevated—but they are
partially obscured by arable ground ; fields begin to slope
up their sides, and cultivation appears, instead of the vene-
rable ruins which abound farther South; still farther North,
the cliffs appear only here and there, and finally at a dis-
tance these hills assume a much more gentle outline, an
appear in some measure to Jose the peculiarities of aspect
which characterise greenstone mountains.
The valley at their feet is fertile, abounding with green
meadows ; a rivulet flows through its length and becomes
the West-river, which empties into New-Haven harbour.—
This valley is alluvial, although, in all probability, its foun-
ee ae
in the Counties of New-Haven-and Litchfield. 203
dation at no great depth is rock, and the junction of primi-
tive and secondary country evidently takes place in this val-
ley. It has been supposed to contain coal, and I know of
no geological fact which contradicts this opinion, and there
are some in favor of it.
Primitive Slate Rocks.
5
n
— that the quartz has arisen from the decomposition of the shistose —
rata,
t Some researches for coal have been made in these slate rocks, but, it is .
*xtremely evident that coal cannot be found in hills that are decidely prim-
itive ; all such expectations concerning this region are less.
\
204 Geology, Mineralogy, Scenery, &e.
Beacon Mountain.
Fourteen miles from New-Haven, we come to Beacon-
mountain, a rude ridge of almost naked rock, stretching
southwest. The road, which is formed in the natural gap
of the mountain, here winds through a bold gulf or defile,
so narrow, that at one place only a single carriage can pass
at once. On both sides the cliffs are lofty, particularly on
the left ; and on the right, at a little distance from the road,
they overhang ina frightful maaner. I climbed the hill at
this place ; the rocks on both sides are mica-slate with gar-
nets and staurotide ; here they had fallen in large masses,
and Jeft the projecting strata impending ina vast natural shed,
under which one might be protected effectually from the
weather, but with the constant apprehension of being crush-
ed by their fall.
The ridges of the Beacon mountain present fine geo-
logical and picturesque features, and are mach more abrupt
and grand than most of the mica-slate regions of Connecticut.
Beyond this gap the road turns more to the left, running
along a rivulet, and after three or four miles we rise some
hills, and discover the Naugatuck a branch of the Housa-
tonick passing along at the foot of other steep hills on the
opposite side. It runs through a deep and narrow gulf and
one looks down upon it from the high hills on which the
- road is laid. .
Gneiss, Granite, &c.
The hills are composed of gneiss, running parallel %.
the ridges of mica-slate already mentioned. This is the
first gneiss that occurs on the road from New-Haven at the
distance of about sixteen miles
We now pass through the little village of Salem, consist-
ing of a few houses on the bank of the river, and whos
church situated on a high hill overlooking the river, forms a
striking and pleasing object.
From Salem, almost to Watertown, four miles, the rocks
are gneiss—still preserving the same direction and parallel-
ism. The county is hilly but very picturesque and beautiful.
Near Watertown, granite begins to be abundant in loose
Masses, andin the town I found detached pieces with garnet
and sappar. atertown, on a commanding hill, with 1s
two steeples and its pretty white houses forms an object such
as is rarely seen in travelling in England. Two miles be-
a as large as a thumb or finger,—so as to be quite por-
ni Bete Ber were sometimes granite and sometimes gneiss
in the Counties of New-Haven and Latchfield. 205
yond Watertown we come to ledges of granite constituting
a considerable hill. Here I found much of the graphic gra-
-hite and radiated or plumose mica, both very handsome in
their kind. The feldspar of the granite was white with a
high pearly lustre, and the grey quartz was delicately inter-
‘pe in graphic forms. The specimens were of extreme
delicacy.
“Mica-Slate. ;
Asi Porsseaiea: the granite soon changed again into mica-
3 Bisse, and this continued without exception, quite to Litch-
fi
eld. It often contained panes and occasionally stauro-
- tide, and I saw loose masses of granite, with crystals of
black tourmalin; while ial “Litehfield-bill numerous loose
blocks were to be seen of primitive limestone containing
tremolite. In fact, the | loose stones through the whole ride
from Woodbridge hills were very numerous, but they were
altogether fragments of primitive rope oH ie granite,
sometimes with the component parts very dist
Frequently the loose rocks contained eee of feld-
: Litchfield-Ehill.
ote isa beautiful spot. One poe street.
mo
isieiiocted however by some cross-streets) exte
an aumile in length,and contains a collection of very hand-
" some houses, with gardens and court-yards—the houses and
appendages are generally painted white, and it is rare to see
80 considerable a number of houses in a country town
where nearly all sg tpieide sig ee oh ten In gland
is with the rich ninteagst sian which surrounds it,—
swelled i into deans} hills, and scooped into luxuriant val-
ies, ever: covered with lively: verdure and with cul-
tivated fields—it presents a ay interesting and gratifying
Seems
‘Litchfield hill reposes on mica-slate, and this on the road
oshen, continues to be the prevailing rock. Ji often
abounds with garnets and staurotide—some of the crystals
ally large.
MEU CHM
een: Mi Non s: 27
206 - Geology, Mineralogy, Scenery, &c.
_ Granite and Gneiss.
Nearer to Goshen than to Litchfield we cross a ledge of
granite—but it is immediately succeeded by gne
Goshen is a pretty village, with a neat eich Sal a few
houses in the centre, but it is principally in scattered farm-
houses. In passing on from Goshen into the corner 0
Cornwal and to Canaan, the country becomes very hilly,
and we cross great ledges of gneiss, often abounding with
veins of quartz. On the road if saw two large loose masses of
en we are about leav-
ing Goshen we enter a great defile in the mountain—vast
ledges of gneiss are on both sides, forming entire mountains;
it is in fact, a winding valley, and as far as the eye can sikeiny
to the North, mountains rise behind mountains, |
« Hills peep o'er hills and Alps on Alps arise,”
= ‘they die away in the distant horizon. »
its 2 — elle among the tootintatan:
ey arrived, fie at night fall, at Hunt’s tavern, a much fre-
‘quer and very comfortable house, situated in a ~ oO!
the same valley which I have already mentioned, the
banks of a rivulet, called the Hollenbeck. In this seshedell
‘spot, in the midst of mountains, I looked for an evening ,o
complete retirement, and intended to proceed with my pic-
turesque and geological sketch of the country.
But, Tsoon found myself surrounded by acquaintances,
some of them old friends of my childhood ; some were trav-
elling South and some North, and this Goins brought us to-
gether from Honibte and opposite oe to pass a soci
evening.
ao Snsteoe: she ocean, and in as midst of Swiss Jand-
scapes, who would have expected to hear the solemn still-
ness of these a disnitbe d by naval songs! A plat
ated in the piazza of the house, with a a voice strong
ai decp-toned, but clear and melodious, beguiled his eve-
ning he urs, by singing the exploits of the American navy ;—
the verse was more remarkable for minuteness of detail,
than for beauty of versification ; but this performer attract-
in the Counties of New-Haven and Litchfield. 207
ed a little audience into the piazza where, in a cool but
pleasant evening, (August 27) the landlord was smoking his
pipe.
Manufactory of Anchors and formation of Bar-Iron.
~ This naval taste was easily explained by the fact, that
at this place there is a considerable establishment for the
manufactory of anchors. It belongs to the Hunts—(four
brothers,) and has supplied many anchors for the American
ships of war. Very lately, they have sent off two for the
Franklin 74 gun ship—one weighed 8000 and the other
9000 pounds. 4 ied au
fT rose very early the next morning to visit the anchor
manufactory. Every thing was very obligingly explained
to me, and I saw enough of the operations to obtain a dis-
tinct comprehension of them. _ ee
he iron is, on the spot, reduced from the ore to
the malleable state. The ore is that of Salisbury—the
wards rendered malleable in the forge. Mr. Hunt inform-
ed me, that in this way, the oré yields not more than half its
weight of malleable iron, whereas in the other mode three
fourths are obtained. Indeed the dross rejected in this
operation is obviously still rich in iron. I selected speci-
mens that were brilliantly erystalized,—had the fine lustre
of the Elba ores and a cae ware specific gravity. 1
208 Geology, Mineralogy, Scenery, e-
was informed that they sometimes melt this dross over again
to get more iron from it, but that in general it is neglected.
In the course of some hours, the melted ore, in a good de-
gree freed from its oxigen, collects into a cisvereak; but soft
mass on the hearth of the forge ; it is removed from the
fire by very massy tongs, connected by an iron chain with a
huge crane of wood by means of which it is sw ung off to_
the anvil, where it is subjected to the strokes of a hammer
moved by water and weighing 600 pounds. ‘The loup, as
itis called is thus completed—the dross is pressed out of its
_cavities,—it is shaped into the form of a rude. paralielopi-
ped and indeed xy ee even by this first operation, in a
good degree malleable
It is now called a ares 3 itis returned to the fire and
heated intensely again, and again it is hammered ; the dross
may be seen exuding from its pores and dropping i in a mel-
ted state—the iron becoming more and more compact and
tough till it fnsbly acquires all the proparies of that most
useful metal.
The iron made from the Salisbury ore is considered as re~
markably, tough and strong, and it is obvious that such is
the belief of our government and ee men or it would not
be employed for anchors for ships of w
i blooms after they are Se aaaic are moire from.
whl Nave me:
four our pou eh oe was. forged from malleable i iron, eds shewn to
the Connecticut legislature at New-Haven. There was 00
anchor in this shop at present over 1000 pounds weight.—
The price at the forge, is about eight dollars per hundred, oF
nine dollars delivered (at water carriage I premneia)
: Manufactory, of Screws.
The Moen: Mopis hice also at thes same suaeows
tablishment for 1 manufacturing screws of the largest sande:
for powerful machinery ; such screws as are sometimes ma-_
ny feet in length and several inches in diameter. The pro
eess by which, they are manufactured is sufficiently simple, ‘
considering the importance of the result.. The piece of
iron being duly prepared ca signee as near as. uakie
) to 300 pounds. weight, and from them the anchors»
wt
Beer Se San ee Te
in the Counties of New-Haven and Litchfield. 209
toa cylindrical form, is placed horizontally, and connected
with machinery moved by water ; it is thus made to rotate
rapidly, and at the same time a proper tool is so applied to it,
as to cut the spiral groove, and of course to leave prominent
a corresponding spiral thread. ahd
Geological and picturesque features of the country. A
waterfal
August 28, 1817 —Finding myself in the midst of a
country, whose mineralogy and geology appeared very
interesting, I took advantage of a bright morning, and was
m my gig at a very early hour. ates : 4
; aly hills and mountains,—steep and abrupt vallies and
ively water led me on every side. I pro
ed between hills of gneiss on my way to the iron mines
of Salisbury. Fragments of dolomite and other forms of
white primitive limestone began to abound along the road,
and many of them were full of crystals of tremolite (the
; grammatite of Haiiy ;) they afforded such beautiful speci-
mens that I could not resist the temptation to descend very
often with my hammer. It was impossible to doubt that a
great change in the geological features of the country would
soon be observed, and that primitive limestone must soon oc-
cur in place.
“Accordingly, before I had gone over the four miles which
t me to the Housatonick river, ledges of white lime-
stone began to make their appearance at some distance from
the road on the right, but gneiss was the last rock which
occurred before crossing the river.
e scenery was altogether wild, and possessed of
very considerable grandeur. A quarter of a mile above the
bridge, the river, here of considerable width, falls over a
ledge of limestone (as itappeared to me at the nearest point
of approach) with clouds of spray, in a white and almost
unbroken sheet of water, and with the thundering noise of a
cataract. I believe the fallis about thirty feet, and being all
at one leap, the effect is very fine.
gets 5 A Furnace.
_ Between the fall and the bridge, a furnace of very con-
siderable extent was in full operation, and its clouds of black
me
210 Geology, Mineralogy, Scenery, &¢.
smoke formed a striking contrast with the spray and fog of
the cataract. It might have been twenty-five or thirty feet
in height, and ten or twelve in diameter. Vast bellows, ri-
sing and falling alternately by the action of water, threw in
torrents of air, at the bottom, while at the top, the workmen
were almost constantly occupied in putting in the ore, with
charcoal and limestone in successive layers and in mixture.
> ore is previously roasted in the open air; it is broken
into pieces of a proper size, arranged in layers alteraately
with charcoal, and when the heap is three or four feet high
the fire is kindled and allowed to burn slowly for many
hours. ‘The cohesion of the ore is in this manner impair-
ed—sulphur, arsenic and other volatile things are expelled,
and it is prepared for the fiercer heat to which it is subject-
ed in the furnace. This last is shaped somewhat like an
egg——a section being removed from each end and the smal-
ler end being uppermost. At the top it is only four or five
feet in diameter, and there is little appearance of the vehe-
ment heat which exists below. The ore, which is here melt-
ed is principally from the Salisbury bed, but partly also
from the adjoining state o New-York. Both kinds are ox-
usefully wrought ; only they are more or less mixed or com-
argil or clayey earth, and other earthy matters and with for-
eign metals ; chrome, titanium, manganese, &c. The princi-
pal steps in this operation are therefore easily explained on
principle. The roasting has been already explained. — In
the furnace the charcoal, aided by the fierce heat, detaches
the oxigen and flies away with it in the form of carbonic
acid gas ; the limestone although by itself infusible, by uni-
ting with the earths and sulphur and other foreign bodies,
removes them, at the same time promoting the melting
of the entire mass, and thus in the language of the furna-
ces it actsasa flux. The iron also to a considerable ex-
tent, combines with the carbon and thus beéomes very flu-
id, and capable of being cast into any desired form. At the
bottom of the furnace, the slag or dross floating at the top of
the melted iron, is sichasiontlty raked off, and the iron is e!-
ther allowed to run out at a tap-hole, or is ladled out with
large iron ladles managed by hand, and thus poured into the
moulds into which it is to be cast. The slag or dross which
in the Counties of New-Haven and Litchfield. 21%
is rejected, accumulates in the vicinity of a furnace and often
to a great extent ; it consists of the lime which was added, as
a flux, combined with the foreign earthy matters, and with a
proportion of oxid of iron and other metallic oxids. It has
often very gay and beautiful colours—it is inflated and
twisted in various forms, or solid and firm like glass, and
has in many instances, the strongest resemblance to the
glasses and frits produced in volcanoes. Indeed it is impos-
sible to contemplate the phenomena of one of these great
furnaces, without finding much to gratify curiosity and much
to inform the understanding. I observed the iron to be, in
many instances crystalized, especially what remained in
the ladles after pouring ; it was in brilliant plates looking
not unlike the specular ore or that variety called the mica-
ceous iron. ao
Primitive Limestone in Mica-slate.
Country; it is immediately succeeded by the primitive
white marble having the same direction and inclination in its
strata ; then again succeeds the mica-slate, and then the
marble, and thus the geological traveller is gratified, in the
Course of five or six miles with as many alternations and suc-
cessions of these two rocks, each perfectly distinct from
the other, and totally different in their nature ; their junc-
fons are in some places exactly defined, and such a number
of alternations and successions in so small an extent of coun-
tty,and on such a scale of magnificence affords sufficient
Materials to occupy and to embarrass the reflections of the
Geologist. These rocks are highly crystaline in their
sttucture—they possess every mark of having been deposit-
ed from a state of chemical solution; yet what cause, eX-
isting in the primitive chaotic ocean, could have determined
at one time the deposition of a rock consisting of quartz
and mica, and immediately after, and without intermixture
pesieerhanens one consisting of crystalized carbonate of
ime ?
“212 — Geology, Mineralogy, Scenery, &c.
Other Furnaces.
We soon arrive at the Wanscopommuck or Furnace lake,
a happy natural reservoir, of a mile or two in diameter, which
supplies an unfailing stream for some of the most conside-
rable iron furnaces in this interesting district of country.
By the politeness of one of the proprietors* every facility
was afforded of access to the iron establishment and to the
bed of ore.
- The establishment is more considerable than the one al-
ready described, and I was particularly struck with the im-
mense piles of slag and refuse, accumulated around the fur-
naces
are cast solid and then bored out by a rotary movement
produced by water. By particular management in the re-
duction of the iron ore, they produce at pleasure either @
harder or a softer metal ; the hardest is so hard that it cannot
be filed, bored, or in any way altered; this is the fact with
most common articles of domestic hollow ware, but that
cast for cannon and some other purposes is soft and is much
less brittle than the hardest kind.
Salisbury iron ore bed.
The main iron ore bed is situated two miles West of
these furnaces. This of course formed an object of atten-
* John M. Holly Esq.
ee
me
en the Counties of New-Haven and Litchfield. 213
tion. Geologically speaking, the Salisbury iron ore as is
ebvious from the statements already given concerning the
rock formations of this district, must be considered as belong-
ing to a country highly primitive. It may be added that mi-
ca slate, without marble, is observed between the furnaces
and the ore bed; somewhat farther West upon the borders
of the state of New-York, the marble again appears, but
whether accompanied by mica-slate I am not informed, al-
though it is most probable that it is. s -
The Salisbury iron ore may, with propriety, be referred to
the mica-slate as its proper accompanying rock, because it
forms the basis of the country, but the ore, as far as I could
learn, is not imbedded in any rock. Its immediate bed is clay.
it is about seventy years since this great bed was opene
It lies in the side of a hill of moderate elevation, and al-
though numerous, large and deep excavations have been
made, there is no indication that the ore is in danger of being
exhausted. It is not worked by shafts and galleries (as I be-
_fieve iron ores generally are not) but like a quarry of stone,
open to the sky, and such connexions are formed between
the pits and the general surface of the country, that, to trans-
_ port the ore, carts and waggons are driven freely in and out.
. The ore, as already remarked, is the brown iron stone
of Werner—that is, the brown oxid of iron, more or less con-
taminated with manganese and other metals, and with por-
tions of earthy substances.
_ All the varieties of this kind of ore may be found here
in great perfection and beauty, and particularly very fine
- Specimens of what is called the brown hematite. Many o
~
these, in their delicate, fibrous and radiated structure, in the
highly varnished gloss of the exterior, and in the elegant sta-
Jactical forms which they have assumed, cannot be surpassed
by specimens in any collections.*
hese large cavernous masses also which contain cavi-
ties usually lined with the stalactical and other beautiful
orms of iron, are here abundant, and an amateur of fine
specimens may here be gratified at a cheap rate.
*If I mistake not, the vertical position of the stalactites, in the ore bed
sufficiently indicates that their form is owing to gravity, while their fibrous
a
| and radiated structure, seems to depend on the laws of erystalization.
_Some of the Salisbury eres, there is a delicate. sooty coating which appears
"is HE te find
to be manganese, and probably affords no groand,(as some have imagined,)
re \
fener
en oe Geology, Mineralogy, Scenerys»Se.
- It has been already observed that the iron, ore at this
place is imbedded in clay, so that it is obtained with com-
parative ease. iui
- The clay is often stained by the oxid of iron, so that it ex-
hibits most of the varieties of colour belonging to the ochres,
more attentive mineralogical examination than probably it
has hitherto received.
There are other ore beds and establishments in this town
for manufacturing both cast and bar iron, but my time did
not admit of my visiting them.
Ride to Kent.
Having now reached the proposed extent of my journey
West, I turned my face South, and crossed the Housatonick
some miles below the falls. In pursuing this oblique course, I
necessarily crossed the strata of marble and mica slate al-
ready described. _ : 3
_ My next object was the bed_of iron ore in Kent, and in
ing to it my journey lay immediately down the east-
ern bank of the Housatonick. In driving about twen-
ty miles, in the course of an afternoon, there was very
little to detain me. My journey was no longer across
the natural ridges of the country, but parallel with and be-
tween them, so that many miles presented less variety than
was often seen in as many furlongs, in travelling at right an-
which it often did with sullen murmurs, over a very rocky
and broken bed, and for a narrow road, in most instan-
ces passing directly along its banks, So abrupt were these
chains of mountains, that on the western side, the river often
washed their very feet, and their frowning cliffs, more or less
veiled by thick forests, hung over the river. The road
which I travelled, was bounded by hills almost equally ab-
_ Tupt, rocky and rude in their aspect, and in most instances
on either side, there seemed to be no passage through these
apparently impenetrable barriers.
in the Counties of New-Haven and Litchfield. 215
My journey was through the borders of Canaan, Corn-
wall and Kent, and although, from the nature of the country,
there could not be much arable land, and only a very spare
population, the eye was constantly regaled with bold views
of mountain and river scenery, and from the more elevated
situations, the whole face of the country seemed a collection
of rade hills and mountains, in most instances covered with
seem beyond the power of any population which is likely
ever to accumulate in these regions,
The failure of a wheel, and the time consumed in secu-
ring it temporarily with cordage, caused twilight to overtake
me, and the mountains closing around on every si (
frowning with their dark and woody sides and ridges, seem-
ed to cut off not only all view of any other more fortunate
region, but absolutely to swallow up the road and to bar all
scape.
rh length, the little village of Kent made its appearance,
seeming to be dropped in among the mountains, and almost
secluded from the rest of the world.
The hills and mountains which occurred between Salisbury
and this place, were, on the eastern side of the river, almost
invariably gneiss ; those on the West appeared to be the
Same, and without doubt they were either gneiss or mica-
slate, or possibly in different places both. The hills pre-
sented the same features as those on the eastern side, and left
ho doubt of the general similarity of geological structure.
During the last five or six miles before reaching Kent,
ranges of white primitive limestone began to attend the
gneiss, and ran parallel with it, but ata lower elevation. _
At the places where I had opportunity to examine, this
limestone appeared in some measure mixed with the
the gneiss. :
August 29.—My wheel being effectually repaired by
smiths whom in the evening I engaged to work with the
first dawn, I set forward early for the bed of iron ore, which
was at the distance of several miles. circuitous road
was said to be very good, but it would lead through the de-
files, while one across the mountains was shorter but exceed-
.
216 Sty Geology, Mineralogy, Scenery, ¥c.
ingly rough, steep and difficult, and rarely travelled sore d
vehicles except carts.
Induced however by a wish t to cross the ridges I isle
red the latter road. Its difficulties were even ‘greater than
had been‘ naam ‘owing I suppose to recent rains
which had swept away the loose earth from the wane nee
stones, and worn deep gullies.
I was however gratified to find that my previous siepedier
sions were correct, and that the ranges by the side of which
t a travelled, and of which these were only. a con-
tinuation, were universally gneiss. | E
Tron ore bed of Kent.
Arrived at the iron mine the observer is tne veiek
with the magnitude of the excavation. This ore bed, like
that at Salisbury, is situated in the side of the hill, ri this is
ahigh and | steep one, and the ore is explored | under the 0 open
sky aces where £4.
leries of some extent have been carried i into the hill. Like the
, which in most places
is the substance with which the iron is in immediate contact.
nlike the excavations at Salisbury, which are numerous but
of small magnitude, this is nearly all in one great basin
ndseve
eee: feet wide. The magnitude of the excavation has
been ——- increased, va an aes ey contrivance of the
r. Adam. He hasturn-
ed a a stream of water coming from ihe more aan ste’
manner a se amount ‘of labour and = in getting ed
As regards the geological position of this ore it is a little
different from that-of Salisbury ; the latter, it willbe Te-
membered, is in ‘mica-slate, ‘Sliesia that of Kent«i is im
gneiss. The section ef the hil] which has been made by t
tn the Counties of New-Haven and Litchfield. 217
excavation, exposes to view a ledge of gneiss in the upper
part of the mine ; it was inaccessible, but fronr its appear-
ance and from the fragments which had fallen below, no
doubt could be entertained that it was gneiss, —— y as
this rock constitutes all the neighboring country. ~
~The clay which forms: ~~ immediate enveloping matter
ids ; good colours for painting might be selected from them.
Some parts of the clay appear very saponaceous, and the
workmen assured me that a true fuller’s earth, answering all
ae purposes of that useful. mineral, had been obtained
A fuller’s earth’ is a clay usually: soapy in its Fickle ty
slidothens of grease and oily matters ; fine in its texture, so
as to present no parts that shall be large and harsh enough
to injure cloth or wool, mechanically, by rubbing ; it should
to powder easily in water, so as to diffuse itself through
that fluid, and easily mix with it and with the stuffs to which
itis applied. The fuller’s earth of Hampshire, England, so
th celebrated, is of a greenish yellow, tolerably firm,
erumbles easily in water, receives a polish from the finger
nail,and is very powerfully detergent. This is, after all, the
ant criterion by which to distinguish fuller’s garth’; :
ifi it removes grease with avidity, crumbles easily in wa-
ter so as to diffuse itself readily,and yet is not so coarse as
to wear the fibre, it is a fuller’s earth. The subject is of some }
practical importance to this country ‘on account of its wool-
len manufactur es, — although checked for the present, |
must eventually rise and prevail. While wes are of seen
extent it may be neti to use soap, but i lar
tablishments, fuller’s earth from its cheapness { et %
can be abundantly obtained) is very esira
ith respect to the existence of fuller’s wos in the clay
of the Kent iron bed it appears very probable, and some of
the specimens appear very like the Hampshire earth, but
bs icra ents alone can decide.
This vast bed of clay, (for it occupies more or less the
h of the pit) is without any reasonable doubt, in-
terposed between ledges of gneiss, which — form its
‘oof, and appear to form its pavement.
218 Geology, Mineralogy, Scenery, &e.
Both this ore and that at Salisbury form a_ striking in-
stance of a great metallic deposit, not in veins, as most met-
als occur, that is, filling fissures in rocks, which fissures are
perpendicular to the horizon, or form an angle and usually
a considerable one with it ; on the contrary, these ores. are
parallel or nearly so with the horizon—that is, taking the en-
tire deposit into view—and form, what is technically as well
as familiarly, called a bed of ore. |
ith respect to the kind of ore at Kent, in a scientific ar-
rangement it would be referred to the same species, as that
at Salisbury—the brown iron stone of Werner or the brown
hematite. Yet practical men assure us that the iron made
from it is of a different, and as is asserted of an inferior
quality, and that itis more difficult to be brought to the state
of good iron.
It would require a careful chemical examination to de-
cide in what the difference consists (and the subject is so
important as well to merit this attention,) but if judging from
appearances only, we were to hazard an opinion, it would be
that the Kent ore containsa larger proportion of manganese.
Most of these ores of iron contain some portion of manga-
nese, and although a small proportion of that metal does not
injure iron and (as some suppose,) even benefits it; a large
proportion renders it brittle.
he impression that the Kent ore contains more manganese,
is derived from the fact that the specimens have, generally,
a darker colour than the Salisbury ore, and in their cavities
there are appearances almost like those produced by pure
oxid of manganese. The Kent sre appears to be mid way
between the brown and the black iron stone of Werner ;—
the latter confessedly contains a great deal of manganese,
and if we are not in an error, the Kent ore bed contains more
of black ironstone—the Salisbury more of the brown.
‘The Kent ore bed also abounds in fine specimens, the
fibrous, stalactitical and mamillary varieties in particular,
are uncommonly fine here, and a mineralogical traveller 1s
strongly tempted to load his vehicle, more deeply than, 3s
convenient in so rough a country.
On comparing the specimens both from Salisbury and
Kent, with those of the same species in the splendid col
*A manufacturer of muskets assured me that he found it too brittle for
gun barrels, while that of Salisbury is very tongh.
in the Counties of New-Haven and Litchfield. 219
lection of Col. Gibbs (most of which came from the mines
in France) we can scarcely distinguish the one from the oth-
er, whether we regard their characters, their beauty, or their
richness. ”
; Se ae
Ride to New-Preston. -
For a series of years a highly crystaline white marble
has been brought to New-Haven from the towns of Wash-
ington and New-Milford; it is in extensive use, for sepulchral
monuments, as well as for purposes of architecture, although
far the greater part of itis used for the former purposes.
This marble, viewed even in the hands of the stone-cut-
ters, could leave no doubt in the mind of the geologist, that
it belonged to the highly primitive formations ; its perfectly
erystaline structure—its high translucence—its whiteness
often very pure—its freedom from any impressions of or-
ganized bodies, and its occasionally abounding with erystals
of foreign substances, particularly tremolite, afford sufficient
ground for this conclusion. could have no doubt, ac¢or-
ding to the established laws of geology, that it must be
found imbedded in gneiss or mica-slate, and most probably
in the former. — : ae
_ Tnow eagerly embraced the opportunity of examining it
in place, and for this purpose passed over east to the village
of New-Preston, distant from the Kent ore bed seven
or eight miles. Gneiss was still the rock which attended
me $ it occasionally rose into abrupt and lofty hills, some-
times composed of naked rock, with the edges of the strate
projecting, and forming rude impending cliffs, threatening a
fall into the vallies. .
The village of New-Preston is situated on one of those
high ridges of gneiss, which pass nearly North and South,
and form the boldest geological features of the country.—
his ridge runs nearly parallel to those which I have al-
teady described, as forming the barriers of the Housatonick
4s far as I pursued its course. ee ;
Gneiss, from the fissile nature of the rock, splitting readi-
ly through the layers of mica or isinglass, which forms a part
of its structure, often affords an excellent building and pa-
Ving stone. The Haddam stone, so much valued in New-
York asa flagging stone, that of New-Milford, of Derby,
&e. is of this description.
220 Geology, Mineralogy, Scenery, §e.
Stone houses—mode of building and of covermg with cement.
Upon the top of New-Preston hill(on a spot which although
rude, on account of the rocks and loose stones, with which it
abounds, affords fine air and picturesque views remarkable
both for extent, variety and beauty,) [had the pleasure to ob-
serve two very good houses, constructed of the gneiss rock of
the country. The public house is one of them and its owner
assured me that it had literally arisen out of its own cellar,
which was wholly excavated from the gneiss rock on which
the house is founded ; the fragments obtained in forming
the cellar had proved more than sufficient to construct the
walls of the house. This house was not covered external-
ly, with any cement, although it had been left rough with that
view. Itseems, the proprietor had been deterred from
applying it, by theill success of a neighbor, who having con-
structed a similar house, and covered it with a cement, had
the mortification to see it cleave off by the square yard at a
teme. But on inspecting this house, also a very good one,
the cause of failure appeared extremely obvious. The ce-
nent had been very improperly applied.
If a stone house is not to be covered with cement, it is
necessary (as every one knows) to construct it with stones
which have the smoothest and handsomest faces—either nat-
ural or cut by the chisel, “according to the nature of the
stone and the views of the proprietor, as to expence ; the
joints are made as nice and smallas possible, and are careful-
ly pointed, which gives this kind of building all the firmness
and beauty of which it is susceptible, and it has the former
in the highest, and the latter in a sufficient degree.
_ But, if a stone house on the contrary, is to be covered
with a cement, its walls should be lefton the outside as rough
as possible—no smooth faces should be suffered to be on
the outside—every such stone should have the smooth face
turned inward, and no very large stones should be employ-
ed, or if they are, their faces should be as rough as possible ;
the stones should be thoroughly bedded in, and the cavities
between them filled with mortar, but the holes on the outside
should not be stopped—no small stones or mortar should be
put in between them—in a word the whole exterior should
present as many rough angular points and as many
in the Counties of New-Haven and Litchfield. 221
uregular, deep and dove-tailed cavities between the stones
as possible
he mortar should be made of the best lime, and if it is
slacked with water already saturated with lime, so much
the better; the sand should be very angular, sharp grained
and purely siliceous, consisting of little else than fragments
of quartz, (commonly called white flint,) it should be coarse,
from the size of a pea to that of the head of a large pin, and
mixed with the lime in about equal bulks, or as some say, six
or seven parts of sand to one of lime, with the addition of a
suitable quantity of hair. This mortar, inclear, and moderate-
ly warm weather, is put on with the trowel, dashed in with
force and care into all the eavities, and floated over to the re-
quired thickness, all at one operation, and one day’s work
must be put on so soon after another that the two edges may
perfectly incorporate, which will not be the fact if the for-
mer day’s work is allowed to dry too much before that of the
latter is put on. j
nly one coat should be applied™-a second would not ad-
here, if applied, and will come off with the frost. The wor
may be afterwards beautified by a lime wash made with
milk instead of water, with certain additions* which the work-
men pretend to keep secret, but which are very well known.
_ A cement put on in this manner will stand ; and in say-
ing this I speak from the experience of twelve years ; a ce-
ment of this kind which under my observation, has been on
that length of time, being as sound as the stone beneath.
In the case of the house on New-Preston hill, a thin coat
Was put on like a first coat of inside plastering ; thus the holes
which should have held the plaster firm were filled up, at
the same time that the stones were scarcely covered, and
when the second coat was applied, there was nothing to hold
it, and of course, as might have been foreseen, it came off
and left a ragged and mutilated exterior. —_
speak with pleasure of seeing houses built of stone be-
Cause it is high time that we should build more extensively
with permanent materials, brick or stone.
* These additions are probably of no importance—the milk and the lime,
appear to be all that are essential; the caseous or cheesy part of the milk
Von. II.....No. 2. 29
222, Geology, Mineralogy, Scenery, ec.
Stone houses properly constructed, the inside plastering
not being laid upon the stone but on lath at a little distance,
or, in the language of the workmen, the walls being furred,
are much warmer in winter, and much cooler in summer, are
in a great measure indestructible by fire, and by time, need
little repair* and are never damp ; on the contrary, if furred,
they are perfectly dry. : 3
If plastered upon the inside, directly upon the stone, they
will be damp, not however from moisture passing throu
the walls, aH is never the case in a well built house, but
from condensation of the vapour of the atmosphere, the
thick masses of stone not suddenly changing their tempera-
ture, ‘and stone being a pretty good conductor of heat, when
the atmosphere becomes charged with vapour and warm
withal, the vapour appears on the wall in drops, as it does
ona tankard or other vessel filled with cold water, and sud-
denly brought into a warm and moist air.
From this digressiongwhich will perhaps be pardoned
from the practical importance of the subject, we return to
our geological investigation.
. Beds of primitive white Marble. .
The ridge of gneiss, on which New-Preston stands, stretch-
es away South and somewhat West to New-Milford. De-
scending its eastern declivity I turned abruptly to the right,
and followed the direction of the ridge of gneiss, travelling
parallel to it. The beds of marble soon made their appea!-
ance in a valley through which runs the little river, the eas-
tern Aspetuck, issuing from the Raumauglake, in the north-
ern part of Washington, and emptying into the Housaton-
ick at New-Milford. Along this little stream; and at small
distances from it, are situated the principal marble quarries,
and they are opened and wrought at short intervals througli
an extent of seven or eight miles, almost to the main street
of New-Milford. The marble, as it lies in its native beds,
has a very beautiful appearance, being, as already observed,
very white and looking almost like beds of snow. Some
of it is large grained, composed of plates of perceptible
in the Counties of New-Haven and Litchfield. 223
magnitude ; in other places it is fine grained, looking al-
most like lump or loaf sugar. Some of it is decidedly
what mineralogists term dolomite, and all of it comes un-
der the denomination of granularly foliated. It is, accor-
ding to scientific arrangements, of the same kind with the
statuary marble, and yet, it may be questioned whether any
of it would answer for statues. Those of the ancients were
made principally from the Parian marble, so called from its
coming from the island of Paros in the Grecian Archipelago,
although it is well ascertained that several other islands, as
Naxos, Tenos, &c. in that sea afford similar marble: I be-'
lieve all the statues of the moderns and some of those of the
ancients are composed of the Carrara marble, thus denomi-
nated from the place where it is found in Italy. To. fit
marble for the use of the statuary, it should be highly erys-
taline, and yet with a pretty fine grain; it should-be- p
fectly white, entirely free from flaws and from foreign mine-
rals, and it should be very firm. The finest pieces of
Washington and New-Milford marble probably come as
near this description as any marble as yet found in this
country, but it is too often mixed with tremolite, often in-
deed in such fine crystals and other forms* that it is very
beautiful to the eye of a mineralogist, although it would be
a blemish to the statua i
he most beautiful pieces of this marble are apt to be of
the most tender consistence, and an artist after toiling with
immense pains to finish a fine statue, would be very much
chagrined to find a delicate prominent part, as a nose, an ear,
or a lip, suddenly break off, or filled with crystals of tremolite.
Statuary marble, although not a remarkably hard stone 1s
one of the most durable. Hence, says Patrin, “ itis sought
for, for the construction of the most sumptuous edifices, and
of monuments which are intended to be at once magnifi-
cent and durable. Marble is one of the least destructible
Materials ; of this we have proof in those, precious statues
which are an eternal monument of the genius of the artists
of ancient Greece. They have supported the injuries of
twenty centuries while the scythe of time has not been able
to glance on the brilliant polish of their surfaces.
hese ranges of marble extend a great way North and
South, and are quarried in many and distant places. th the
* Scarcely inferior in beauty to the tremolite of the Alps.
224 Geology, Mineralogy, Scenery, &c.
present case the sawing is performed by the waters of the
Eastern Aspetuck ; the quarrying is carried on in the usual
manner. One circumstance however was novel to me.—
The marble is easily divided by wedges in the direction of
its stratification, but if they wish to produce a vertical crack,
they can effect it, and at the same time produce a horizontal
one in the following manner. An auger is provided which
is exactly of the form of an equilateral triangle ;—with this,
a triangular* hole is bored, in such a manner that the basis of
e triangle is in the plane of the horizon, or of the stratifi-
cation, and of course a line let fall from the vertex so as
equally to bisect the base, would be perpendicular to the
horizon, or to the stratification. When this hole is charged
with gun powder and fired in the usual manner, two cracks
are produced, one horizontal or in the direction of the stra-
tification, and on both sides of the hole, and the other per-
pendicular to the first.
was gratified to find the geological associations of this
marble very distinct and exactly such as I had been led to
anticipate.
This marble forms a perfectly distinct bed in gneiss,
which is found on both sides of it, and of course both above
and below it. As we travel on toward the centre of New-
Milford, the gneiss makes its appearance in various places
in the road, and is every where attended by the marble.—
According to the systematic arrangement of Mr. Werner,
this is therefore the oldest primitive limestone, forming dis-
tinct beds in gneiss. I was very solicitous to observe the
junctions of the marble and gneiss, and was gratified in va-
rious places. The transition from the one rock to the other
was, however, in general, not perfectly abrupt, and a sems!-
ble intermixture of the two rocks could be perceived for
some feet on both sides of the junction.
d he two rocks accompany each other quite into the
main street of New-Milford, and cross the river Housaton-
ick some little way below, and without doubt proceed on to
Danbury, Reading, &c, where primitive limestone is found.
The geological relations of this marble appear then to be
perfectly distinct —I may say they are very grand in their
extent, and give us new reason to admire, that wonderful
order and harmony, little suspected by people in general,
* It would not necessarily be triangutar—if the auger should be suffered 1
ular
vevolve, in the usual manner, the bole wou!d of course be cire
ical
at i i a i
in the Counties of New-Haven and Litchfield. 225
which are found equally in the mineral kingdom, as in the
animal and vegetable, and which afforded, on analogical
grounds, the best reason to predict, that the geological asso-
ciation of this marble would be found to be what it actually is,
New-Milford.
I had some hours at New-Milford before night, and
they were busily occupied in packing my specimens, and
in viewing the town and its vicini
The public burying ground strikes a traveller forcibly, on
account of the great number and crowded state of its mon-
uments, and their being, almost without exception, construct
ed of the snow-white marble, so abundant in the vicinity.
New-Milford has had the reputation of not being a heal-
thy town. Bills of mortality, averaged for a good number
of years, afford the only adequate means of deciding a ques-
“tion often agitated between different towns. New-Milford
has of late years, had some sickly seasons, and so have
most towns in Connecticut, however healthy they may be
reputed. It is true we must not infer from this that there is
no difference in the health of different places. It is how-
ever probable, that in New-Milford, the great show of mon-
uments, (many of them very beautiful in their design and
execution) arises from the facility, with which the material
is obtained in the neighborhood. P
New-Milford lies in a valley on the banks of the Housa-
tonick ; high hills cut off the view to the East, and indeed
in almost every direction, and this low situation, with the ef-
fects of evaporation from stagnant water, have, in popular
SS.
opinion, given rise to its reputed unhealthines
his town is situated principally upon one main street,
With some windings and branches. In few towns in Con-
necticut, is there so great an inequality in the appearance of
€ houses. Some are more than commonly mean and ru-
inous, while a considerable number are beautiful, and some
even splendid. One house, built of brick, is very expensively
ornamented with the white marble, which, beside many other
costly decorations, forms a superb arch over the door.
Our country isstill too recent to afford the traveller many
of those biographical, and other interesting historical noti-
ces which are socommon in Europe. It could not, howev-
&r, be uninteresting to know, that this town was the early
226 Geology, Mineralogy, Scenery, Ye.
residence of the venerable senator, Roger Sherman: his
house, a plain old building, is still pointed out, and his name
will be remembered as long as talent, integr cy and patriot-
ism shall command the respect of American
August 30th.—With the rising sun I left: New-Milford,
and beading my course East, passed a succession of roug
and arduous ridges, to the Shepaug river. In the distance of
five or six miles, the succession was gneiss—gneiss—gneiss
—mica-slate—gneiss—gneiss,—which last terminates in
an alluvial tract upon the banks of the Shepaug, a river which
empties into the Housatonick. The rocks of mica-slate,
abounded with garnets, and had time permitted, many fine
specimens might have been obtained.
Mine Hill—Quarry of Gneiss—Spathic Tron.
At the Shepaug, I quitted my wheels, —_ with a guide,
proceeded, on horseback, two miles North, to the silver mine,
as it has been called, sintated:i ina ores, ‘pon the last ridge
of gneiss which I had erossed. The , from its steep~
ness and roughness, and the thick rat - which it is al-
most every where covered, is difficult to ascend.*
This hill is called Mine-hill, from its having been ex-
plored some years ago by mining operations. The ex-
cavations were made at several places, but chiefly at one,
where we soon arrived. I have been assured by a son
of the person who carried on the work, that without any
doubt, silver was obtained there in some quantity, but not
enough to render it profitable, and the work after being car-
ried on to a very considerable extent, a deep shaft —_
been excavated, and great quantities of different mine
thrown up, was ‘abandoned.
Of the silver, I could at present: discover no traces but,
from some specimens, from this place, which I saw some
since, I am led to suspect that - ore was the sul-
phuret or the vitreous silver ore of Werner.
Every — here, however, indicates a metallic vein, a ee
the relics of the mine still
sufficient indications as to the principal ¢ contents of the vein.
cal indispe 1 or eh pe ee may
_not be amiss to t meetin tor _ - fit of fone i travellers,
that any information will be o| bligingly i imparted, at the house of a respec:
table man, (Mr. Trowbridge,) who lives at the foot of the hill
IS
in the Counties of New-Haven and Litchfield. 227
account. : ain x:
It is very well characterized. Its structure is distinetly
liat
immediate gangue, and many specimens are found, in which
it is beautifully interlaced with this mineral, and occasional-
ly a fragment presents a ground of dark coloured spathic
iron, with white crystals of quartz, perforating it in many
Places, and directons and thus presenting a kind of mosaic.
n the above description, it is presumed every mineralo-
gist will recognize the spathic iron. This kind of iron ore
is entirely different from that of Salisbury and Kent. It is
essentially composed of oxid of iron, united to carbonic att
and usually to lime ; it contains also variable proportions 0
manganese and sometimes magnesia. It appears to be es-
sentially a carbonate of iron, but it is rare that lime is nov
also present.
228 Geology, Mineralogy, Scenery, &e.
- Hence probably it is, that, ordinarily, in reducing it, it is
not necessary to put limestone into the furnace, as in case of
other iron ores; the lime, or in other words, the flux, is
present in the ore itself, and little or none need be added.
But this is not its greatest excellence—
It affords steel directly from the bar without the process of
cementation. Hence, in Europe this ore is much valued, as
the iron bar drawn out by the trip-hammer in the common
ss of ming, is iron or steel at pleasure, according
as the process is managed's ; this is not true of any other
ore, and hence probably this has been called the steel ore.
The steel made from it is not of the finest kind, it is used
principally for agricultural and other coarser instruments.
e gneiss rock in which this spathic iron lies, is within
the limits of the town of New-Milford, and on account of
the important use which is there made of this rock, it is
worthy of a moment’s attention.
It is, as already remarked, gneiss, but singularly perfect
in its characters, and it is questionable whether for purposes
perfectly regular and continuous on one right line,that slabs
of it of any length which can be lifted, can be raised from
| a“ so regular in all their dimensions, and so even in
eir surfaces, that they are hardly, excelled by hewn
"The ‘colour also is of a light, agreeable grey 3
Sonics houses in New-Milford have this stone for their
-steps and basement ; and its natural surfaces, or those,
which, at the ends and edges are but slightily modified by
the hammer and chisel, are so perfect that nothing finer
‘need be wished for the construction of the handsomest hous-
es in cities. Could it be easily transported to New-York,
is stone would be a more valuable pousessior to ‘the _
prietor, than the mine of silver or iron
I was informed that one stone was sictually removed from
the quarry, of the astonishing length of forty feet, with
such a breadth and thickness, as corresponded to the pur-
pose for which it was to be used. It is worth the trouble
of a visit to New Milford, if it were for nothing else than to
see this incomparable kind of building stone. In its native
bed, it has the general stratification of the neighboring coun-
try, both with respect to the direction and dip of the strata-
in the Counties of New-Haven and Litchfield. 229
Rattle Snakes—anecdote of one.
1 was informed by my guide that rattle snakes had for-
merly been very numerous upon this hill, and were still
found there in considerable numbers. He accorded with
the general impression as to their torpidity, and the
slowness ‘of their motions, but stated the following fact, as
of his own knowledge. One of his neighbors, a young
man, meeting with a large and vigorous snake, of this spe-
cies, instead of despatching him at once with his long cart-
whip, which he could easily have done without the slightest
danger, (as it is well known that they are killed very easily)
amused himself by provoking him, by gently playing his
whip around his body. The irritated reptile made repeat-
ed and vigorous leaps towards the young man, coming near-
er to him at every effort, and being teazed more and more
_by-the whip, at last threw himself into the air with such en-
ergy, that when he descended, he seemed scarcely to touch
the ground,—but instantly rebounding, executed a succes-
sion of leaps, so rapid, and so great, that there was not the
slightest intermission, and he appeared to fly. The young
man betook himself to a rapid flight, but his dreadful pur-
suer gained rapidly upon him, till approaching a fence he
perceived that he could not pass it before the fangs of the
snake would be hooked in his flesh ; as his only resource,
he turned, and by a fortunate throw of his lash, by which
€ wound it completely around the serpent’s body, he ar-
rested his progress, and killed him.
Few animals are furnished with more dreadful means of
destruction. I had a living one nearly two months in my
possession, and every day watched his manners. Birds,
and most small animals, when put into his cage, he immedi-
ately killed, but did not eat them ; a toad he permitted to
remain with him for weeks unmolested, and even seemed
attached to him, as he would permit him to leap upon his
body, and even to sit upon his head. He took nothing except
water, which he drank in large quantities, but rejected eve-
ry thing else, although tempted with very many things 5 he
ed emaciated, and at the approach of cold weather died.
t he was six weeks in full vigour. When he opened his
mouth his fangs were not visible, unless he was provoked ;
fae | ee No, s. 0
230. Geology, Mineralogy, Scenery, ec.
_at other times they were covered by a membrane like
a scabbard, only they were drawn back, so that the
sheathing membrane formed only a slight protuberance on
each side of the upper jaw. If irritated, he flattened his
head, threw it back, opened his mouth wide, and instantly
the fatal fangs were shot out of their sheaths, like a spring
dagger, and he darted on his object.
After his death I examined the fangs; they were shaped like
a sickle—a dutt led from the reservoir of poison at the bot-
tom of the tooth, quite through its whole length and termi-
nated just by the point, which was exceedingly sharp. Thus
the fang is darted out at the will of the animal—it makes
the puncture at the instant, and, simultaneously, the poison
flows through the duct and is deposited in the very bottom
wound. As this rarely fails to touch a blood vessel.
the venom is thus instantly infused into the system, and
without delay commences the march of death through ev-
ery vein and artery. al a
These facts, I am sensible, are not new, but they are not
often related by eye witnesses, and nothing regarding the his-
tory of this tremendous animal can fail to be interesting.—
How happy is it, that the poison of the rattle-snake, is not
conjoined with the size of the Boa-constrictor, and with the
speed of the antelope !
te Ride to Woodbury.
: From the Mine-hill, through Roxbury, to the’vicinity of
Woodbury, eight or nine miles, the country was an uninter-
rupted succession of high hills, and deep vallies—not moun-
tainous, but forming vast curves, and causing the face of
following the ae direction and stratification of the coun-
_ Near Woodbury the rocks presented some tour-
malins. ’
On reaching the top of a high hill, all of a sudden in @
valley stretching North and South for a mile or two, Wood-
bury appears, with a handsome, well built street,and furnish-
ed with three churches, with spires,—two of them new an¢
handsome. For one ef these churches, it seems the
oo
z an the Counties of New-Haven and Litchfield. 231
town is indebted to a dissension as to the location of a
house of worship, which, as usual in such cases, ended in
the building of two new ones.
Woodbury basin of secondary Greenstone, &e.
_ While descending the last hill, the geological traveller is
forcibly struck with the new physiognomy of the valley in
which Woodbury lies. Its features are totally different
from those of the country on which he ‘still is, and from
those of the remoter regions all around.
Abrupt fronts of dark coloured naked rock rise perpen-
dicularly from flat, and apparently, alluvial plains.—
‘They have mural precipices and sharp ragged ridges, frin-
ged with wood, and are marked by a great accumulation of
ruins of the rock, sloping from the foot half or two thirds of
the way up the rock ; on the opposite side of the hills the
descent is gradual, without precipices, and comparatively
ea
No one who with habits of observation hag travelled from
New-Haven to Hartford, and so on to Northampton, and
Deerfield,—no one, in short, who has ever been conversant
with a trap country, can fail almost at first glance to refer
this to that class of rocks. It is the whin stone of the
Scotch—the grunstein or greenstone of the Germans, and,
in a popular way, may be referred to the same family 0
rocks as the Giant’s Causeway and the cave of Fingal.
As the traveller descends into the valley, all his impres-
sions are fully confirmed by discovering red sandstone in
the structure of the houses and by finding a quarry of it
worked at the foot of one of the ridges of rock. In a word,
this is a basin of secondary greenstone, or trap, reposing on
the old-red sandstone of Werner. After being so long oc-
cupied in the regions of gneiss and other highly primitive
rocks it is gratifying to find thus suddenly so new a feature
in the geology of the countr
On consulting Mr. Machue’s late geological map of the
United States, I find that this spot did not escape his sa-
gacity ; he travelled over it, and has laid it down as secon-
dary, and belonging to the old red sandstone formation.
rom our being now within twenty-four miles of New-
Haven, it might be imagined that this tract is merely a
232 Geology, Mineralogy, Scenery, &c.
branch of the great secondary trap formation which com-
mences at that town ; -but it will appear that it is not; on
the contrary, itis perfectly distinct—it is strictly a basin;
an island, (if I may say so,) of secondary trap, in the midst
of an ocean of gneiss.
Ve find estan xe a total change in the minerals of
the country. Very beautiful prehnite is found here abun-
dantly, lying loose among the stones at the bottom of the
precipices ; it is in mamillary and botryoidal masses, or in
most perfect spheres, and sometimes in veins, and the
structure is in diverging fibres,—the colour a delicate green.
I have seen it no where so fine or so abundant in this coun-
try. Agates are also found here, and zeolites and some of
them handsome. In other parts of the same tract, bitumin-
ous stones are found. I have a piece of fibrous limestone,
from this tract, which is so bituminous that it looks as i
soaked in tar and will burn with flame.
My time did not permit me to coast around this basin,
and ascertain its extent and its relations with the precision
which I could have wished. It evidently reached but a
mile or two North of where I then was, and, returning to
New-Haven, I rode through its length in that di irection, and
should place its entire length at seven or eight miles. Its
breadth — but a little way to the East of the North
and south road which I was travelling, and judging from the
contour of the “hills to the West, a should imagine that
it was succeeded by gneiss at the distance of two or three
miles from the roa
know of eckiiee3 in this country similar to this basin.
except the coal basin of Richmond, which, although small,
is much larger than this.
A friend,* to whom in a letter I described this basin, re~
marks upon it :— The county of Antrim, in the North
Ireland, presents numerous patches or districts of trap and
basalt, in such relative positions as to render it very evident
that after a surface consisting partly of bare primitive, and
partly of hard chalk with flints had been formed, this was
* The Rev. Henry Steinhauer, Principal of the Moravian Institution of
Bethiem, Member of the Geological -jecett of London, and formerly ®
missionary among iota Esquimaux - i
Aprit 9, 1819. Scienc iohasiiin’
plore the death of this excellent and able man, tite whom, as Penal
the celebrated Moravian Seminary at Bethlem, inPenn. and as a <<
cultivator of the ontacad mek te this country had much te hope.
in the Counties of New-Haven and Litchfield. 233
sompletely covered with a stratum of trap, which by some
subsequent operation, was carved, united to its subjacent
masses, into the present surface of the country, so as to be
detached in some places, and to remain contiguous in oth-
ers. Is there any reason (independent of the theory of
universal formations, which I think must not be taken
nce was continuous over a much larger extent of coun-
29)
My present impression is that the trap of Connecticut
and Massachusetts, has not extended over more country
than it now occupies. But this subject may at a future time
be resumed. rebut
In Southbury, numerous low, conical hills, of sand and
gravel appeared, and formed the basis of the road.
Recurrence of primitive country,—and ride to New-Haven.
spot. :
The rocks which intervene between this place and New-
Haven, are the same ranges which, a few miles North, I pass~
in the commencement of this tour. They are, for two
or three miles mica slate—then chlorite slate, much mixed
Slate and clay’slate, which succeed, lie vast isolated masses
of trap, without any apparent connexion with other rocks ;
m t f
ge naa or trap, and perhaps give some countenance te
Mr. Steinhauer’s suggestion.
234 Geology, Mineralogy, Scenery, ¥ye.
Descending the hill, trap and argillite and chlorite slate,
several times alternate, and form the cliffs through which the
road has been wrought.
Scenery.
Now a combination of fine objects, breaks upon the view.
On the left the magnificent ridges of secondary trap, (men-
tioned in the commencement of the tour,) stretching away
North, farther than the eye can distinguish, and forming the
arrier of luxuriant vallies, whose fine verdure is admira-
bly contrasted with their naked and lofty precipices ; <3
ther East, other and still other ranges succeed, till their
faint outline is blended with the distant sky ; eich
at our feet, is the great alluvial plain, from which rise. the
smoke and the spires of New-Haven, and further still its ex-
tensive bay, surrounded by alluvial and secondary, but ter-
minated at its mouth, by primitive country, closing in upon
both sides; and much more remote, but distinguishable in
the distant horizon, appear the shores and coast of Long-ts
and, with the intervening sea and the craft and ships which
it bears on its Sidaing
General Remarks and Conclusions.
~_— formations, which are laid down by Mr. Wern
1. Clay slate, including beds of trap, and anal nae
sionally into chlorite slate.*
. babs a mile south of the road, on which my returning tour crossed
these slaty rocks, commence beds of serpentine mar rble, which conti ee
sight 6 or ten a, to the sea, and become the beautiful material, so neal
0 nH lique, now largely quarried and wrought. This ex-
traordinary bed of marble and serpentine, is wall ed of amore par-
Cickler account.
-
CE eee aE.
in the Counties of New-Haven and Litchfield. 235
2. Mica slate succeeds and occupies the country, for
many miles. : '
3. Gneiss succeeds to the mica slate, and occupies the
country for many miles more.
crystalized primitive marble, and, including the formation
further south, between New-Preston and: New-Milford—
these beds of marble, are included in strata of mica slate
and gneiss—the whitest and most crystaline and purest
marble being in the gneiss.
9. West of Litchfield, a few miles, (as 1am informed from
the best authority,) there are hills of primitive hornblende
and sienite.
of Werner, and the secondary district, on which New-Ha-
ven stands, includes a considerable portion of his seconda-
ty formations.
The direction of the ranges of primitive rocks, is general-
ly North, a little inclining to East, and of course South, a
little inclining to West; the inclination of the strata, is to
the East, at an angle, varying very much in different pla-
es; the strata are in some places, nearly vertical and in
.
others, at angles of less than 45° with the horizon.
* Possibly it is on'y in veins.
236 Localities of Minerals.
we
Art. 1V.—Locauities or MINERALS.
Localities—communicated by Professor Dewey of Will-
iams* College.
curs,
ish-white, and cream-coloured, with spots of a smoky hue,
like smoky quartz in this respect, but certainly serpentine.
It is sometimes associated with quartz, filling the cavities of
strata of quartz, covered with minute crystals. Its hard-
ness is very variable—some of it is disintegrating, some Is
fibrous, and seems to be passing into asbestus. Much of
this serpentine, especially the lighter coloured, is remarka-
bly fine. The whitish decrepitates much, when high tem-
perature is suddenly thrown uponit. Odour is strongly mag-
nesian, when the mineral is breathed on. In some speci-
mens are yellowish and reddish brown portions of a crystaline
structure, and in some, cavities are filled with these impet-
fect crystals. They break into a rhomboidal form, and are
sometimes very regular rhomboids. Some of them, are so
closely serpentine, that they may be all the same mineral.
They contain, like the rest of the serpentine, magnesia, 0X-
yd of iron, often so minute, that they are discoverable only
under a magnifier, or by the magnet. :
Ir. Emmons has also found, beautiful masses of actyno-
lite, often containing small tufts of the fibrous variety. White
talc is often mixed with the actynolite.
Bitter Spar, is found there also, in the soapstone, 28sec
ated with beautiful green tale. The spar is laminated, white,
and yellowish—but some specimens, when fractured, Pte
sented numerous small rhombs. i
| have found in Sheffield, (Mass.) masses of Tremolite,
with fibres two feet long. I never heard of such tremolite.
* In Prof. Dewey’s piece, (Vol. I. pa. 337,) Williams College is errooe:
ously printed Willian.’ College. re * 3
EEL
Localities of Minerals. 237
Hexagonal crystals of mica.—They are in granite. As I
did not notice them at first, I cannot tell where the granite
was obtained, but believe it was from Chester or Westfield,
on the granite ridge. Some of the crystals are small, not
more than one tenth of an inch on a side and almost regular
hexagons. Others are larger, and have —— sides.—
ine real size of them is here given.
No. be No. 2. s ia :
The sides are
nat bes ry Oe oO. ra Enlarged.
some of the ‘oAyiis much resemble those — 4
you mentioned in the Journal from Porto ————_—*
Rico. It is probable that other “specimens of titi oni
An attempt to measure the angles of No. 1
“G=S1229, 61269, c==1120, © d=—=121°, and
a 820.°'The sum’ is 721°, and should be but 720°.
e above angles may therefore be taken as very near the
ttath.
In No. 3, the angles were as follows, a==116°, 51249,
CST 29°9; d=112° » e==28221°, and n—117°, being ae,
7203°, and approximating nearly to the truth. I do
ee the angles are very accurate, for I had no Fite
ams of measuring them. In some of the crystals, the
sada are more unequal than in No. 3.
~ In some rhombic spar, containing the new mineral, Bru-
mai de from Sparta, New: T found several hexagonal crystals
mica.
gt of ae in dolomite, from Great Barring-
These crystals are much compressed, and the diedral
ie Sent odie: so that they become bladed crys-
tals. They are from one half inch to two inches, or more, in
Jength, ania some of them three fourths of an inch in breadth.
They are found in hard rocks cf dolomite, above ground,
and very abundantly, in the very friable dolomite, under the
“surface of the earth. The fibrous and acicular varieties of
tremolite are abundant in the South part of this county.
rown Spar from Leicester, . on Genesee river.—
‘The crystals are rounded, or lenticular, and often so taal
ed, as to have a scaly appearance—colot w, dark .brown
Vou /ALNo, 2. 31
238 Localities of Minerals.
vescence, in nitric acid.
on
dr
stalagmites ; but their location and composition do not
well agree with this mineral. This notice may lead to ex-
amination of them.
Localities by Mr. Amos Eatroxn—from the minutes of the
ate Troy Lyceum. «
White Augite—Sappar—Plumbago—Adularia.—Iin the
granular limestone of Canaan, Washington, and Brookfield,
in Connecticut, tremolite abounds, and in Brookfield, the
white variety of augite is abundant.
_ Near the northeast corner of Haddam, on the East side
of the river, in the parish of Middle-Haddam, is a new lo-
cality of -sappar. It is on the farm of a Mr. Selden, from
whom I received specimens, with fibres, from six to eight
inches in Tength. It is here found in mica-slate, as at Ches-
terfieldand Conway,
Above six miles in a southeast direction from Brimfield,
and two miles East of Holland meeting-house, is an exten-
sive bed of Plumbago. Several years ago, this mine was
wrought, and many tons of plumbago were taken from 1t-—
The beds of plumbago, lie between layers of gneiss,
Localities of Minerals. 239
connexion with hornblende, perfectly pure, except that it
contains cobalt ore, like the hornblende of Monson and
Chatham.
{In Brimfield, in Massachusetts, the stone wall, near the
‘house of Dr. Lincoln, and of the widow of Gen. Eaton,
abounds in adularia. The feldspar part of a large portion of
the granite and gneiss of that vicinity, is supplied by the
most beautiful adularia. The sulphuret of molybdena, also
is there very common—it is found chiefly, in veins of granite
which traverse gneiss. :
% * * ¥ * * *
Localities of Mine ajs, observed principally in Haddam,*
in Connecticut, Hi Sat 1819, by Dr. J. W. Wester.
Communicated in various letters to the Editor. —
T have discovered a new locality for tourmalin of great
beauty, and of remarkable regularity of form; it is about
one mile beyond the rock which Col. Gibbs blasted, some
years since, for small, short Tourmalin, which rock, is in
€ road, four miles from the inn, at Haddam. The strata
in this place, are, mica-slate and gneiss, frequently alterna-
ting, and passing into each other, traversed by veins of gra-
Nite of various size ;—following the beds of these rocks,
through a thick wood, I observed the tourmalin increase in
quantity, and size, towards the more elevated part of the
eds of mica-slate, a blast being made, the rock appeared
Wholly composed of a yellowish granular quartz, and black
tourmalin, which were thrown out in profusion, being easily
Separated from the granular quartz. Every crystal was per-
fect, having three lateral planes, and being terminated at
each extremity with three; the terminal planes set upon the
lateral. The diameter varies from 1-6 to 1-2 an inch, but
T afterwards observed some with a diameter of two inches,
less perfect however. iat ae ;
In another letter, it is remarked, I have found a new locali-
_ ty of black tourmalins, all doubly acuminated, and none less
than an inch and a half in length, by one in diameter.
* Haddam is about twenty miles from the mouth of Connecticut river,
9n its western bank, and about 100 miles N. E. from New-York.
L
'
240 Localities of Minerals.
About three miles West of the tavern in Haddam, in a
cross road, Dr. Webster says, “I discovered in a vein four
inches wide and four feet long, in a decomposed mica slate,
and in the sand proceding from its decomposition, the
finest crystalized spidiats, which I have seen — an
American locality ; the specimens are, many of them, pre-
cisely like those from the Oisans. We have here; i in short,
the pistacite, zoizite, and epidote a arenace.
Felder and a grey quartz, the parts very large, ae it
abounds with garnets, some of mite _a great size, with
tourmalins and fine fibrous white tale.” This rock is in the
court-yard of a dwelling house, and passes under the house,
into its cellar. Mineralogists have found it necessary, and
just, to insure the proprietor of the house, against their gun-
powder blasts, and to pay him liberally for the molestation
of his peace. J—Ed. Of this rock, Dr. Webster observes :
The rock containing speenbeeck is undoubtedly a vein,
‘traversing gneiss, we believe. {[ obtained permission to
blast, a is. Th
ithert led by earth, is most most abundant = seenet& -
1 Stanined masses two feet in a with perfect ga
four, five and six inches in diameter, but all farnimseds ain
one specimen, consisting chiefly of mica,are very perfect black
tourmalins. In the mica slate of this vicinity, I found con-
soe Ag dae
<3 7. Fy Piintan hee chk . Be Pie Se, ae ee ptr
Localities of Minerals. 241
New locality of erystalized sulphat of Barytes, §c.—Com-
municated in a letter by D. B. Dovaxass, assistant pro-
fessor in the West Point Military Academy, :
During my excursion to the northwest, last summer, as.
astronomer to the Boundary Commissioner, I was enabled
to make a considerable collection of minerals ;—among the
test, a rich one of Niagara specimens; also some very
‘air specimens of organic remains from fort Erie—upon the
islands at the West end of Lake Erie, I obtained sulphat of
barytes, which is found both in crystals, and in mass, in
great abundance, in the western islands above mentioned.
he crystals are very flat hexagonal prisms, clustered to-
gether rather confusedly, and adhering very slightly to each
other ; they are generally very clear and pellucid, some-
times tinged with blue.
Localities of Minerals —Gommunicated by Dr. I. F. Dana.
Tremolite, (bladed,) abundant, and of a fine quality at
Chester, N. H. at.
Plumbago, in small rolled masses, and in small veins, in
Micaceous schistus, at Chester, N. H. Some specimens
are very fine, and in laminz, as large as the hand and half
ick
Localities of Minerals.—By the Rev. Mr. Schaeffer of
New-York.
Pistazite, (Epidote,) in beautiful crystals, occurred in a
tock of singular constitution, composed 0 schorl, quartz,
cubic, [euboidal? as the cube is not among the orms of ear-
bonate of lime,—Ed.] crystals of carbonate of lime, indico-
lite, &e. and an ore, the nature of which is not yet ascer-
tained. It is probable, however, that 1t may contain nickel.
Corlaer’s Hook, New-York, discovered nearly three years
Cy
Pittasite (epidote,) amorphous, or rather granular,—oc-
eursina ferruginous green feldspar rock; Rhinebeck, Dutch-
ess County, N. ¥.—observed last summer.
@
242, Ancient Bones.
Art. V. On some ancient human bones &c. with a no-
tice of the bones of the Mastodon or Mammoth, and
of various shells found in Ohio and the west ; by Cater
TWATER, Esq.
Circleville, May 22, 1820..
TO PROFESSOR SILLIMAN.
Dear Sir,
Ir has been said, that neither the bones of man, nor
the remains of any of his works, have been found in any of
the rock formations of our Globe. This may be true of all
parts of the earth except Ohio. In this region however a
number of skeletons have been found in two places at least,
and the works of man have been discovered in many oth-
ers. To what epoch or catastrophe of our globe, they are to
be referred, I leave others to decide, while I proceed to
relate the facts.
I am credibly informed, that in digging a well at Cincin-
nati in this state, an arrow head was found more than ni
ty feet below the surface. The geology of that place has
been well described by Dr. neo in his “Picture of Cin-
cinnati.” It is a very ancient alluvion. Nine miles Sou'
of the ee shore of lake “Erie, at Ridgeville, Cayaho-
ga county, several feet below the surface, in the ridge,
which was Sue the southern shore of the lake, several
5 ee and one or more human skeletons were found, which
zine ¢ manier as thoes discovered at Ridgeville
At Pickaway plains, about three miles South of this town,
while several persons were digging a well, several years
since, a human skeleton was found{ seventeen feet six inches
* Fact derived frrom Moses Eldred, Esq.
i Authority, Israel Harrington, Esq. of Lower ee
+ By Major John E. Morgan.
wewssncemesid
Bete oe
SF tn.
NESSJocelyn Se.
Ancient Bones. 243
below the surface. This skeleton was seen by several per-
sons ; and among others, by Dre Daniel Turney, an emi-
nent surgeon of this place ; they all concurred in the belief,
that it belonged toa human being. Pickaway plains are, or
rather were a large prairie, before the land was improved by
its present inhabitants. This tract is alluvial to a great
depth ; greater, probably, than the earth has ever been
perforated, certainly than it has been here by the hand of
man. The surface of the plain is at least one hundred feet
above the highest freshet of the Scioto river, near which it
lies. On the surface is a black vegetable mould, from three,
to six, and nine feet in depth—then we find pebbles and
shells imbedded among them: the pebbles are evidently
rounded and smoothed by attrition in water, exactly such
as we now see at the bottom of rivers, ee and lakes. I
hand of man, for there are no marks of any grave; or
of any of the works of man, but the earth and pebbles
appear to lie in the very position in which they were de-
posited by the water. This skeleton is ‘no more, but one
skull found nearer still to this town, a drawing of which ac-
companies this communication, I have been careful to pre-
serve fora similar plate. (See 2d plate.
On the North side of a small stream, called Hargus
creek, which at this place empties into tne Scioto, in dig-
ging through a hill composed of such pebbles as I have de-
scribed in Pickaway plains, at least nine feet below the
surface, several human skeletons were found, perfect in ev-
ery limb. The drawing* which I have annexed, is exactly
One fourth part as large as one of these skulls which is inmy
‘possession. ‘These skeletons, thus found, were promiscu-
* Although I profess no skill in drawing, I believe the draft is correc’.
-
ae
Suse
ae
f a
244 Ancient Bones and Shells.
when itwas probably a mighty stream, compared with which,
it is now a mere brook. There are other skulls in this town
taken out of the same hill, by the persons who, in order to
make a road through it, were engaged in taking it away.
- These bones are very similar to those found in our
mounds, and probably belonged to the same race of men.
These people were short and thick, not exceeding gene-
rally five feet in height, and very possibly they were not
more than four feet six inches. These skeletons, when
first exposed to the atmosphere, are quite perfect, but after-
wards moulder and fall into pieces. ether they were
overwhelmed by the deluge of Noah, or by some other,
know not, but one thing appears certain, namely,—that wa-
ter has deposited them here, together with the hill in which,
for so many ages they have reposed. Indeed, this whole
country appears to have been once, and for a considerable
period, covered with water, which has made it one VAST
CEMETERY OF THE BEINGS OF FORMER AGES.
oo : * * z *
Terebratula pennata, &c. &e.
Sept. 24th, 1819.—I send you four drawings of articles
io me an ; I do not find the like in Parkinson’s
*‘ Organic Remains,” nor in Sowerby’s ‘“ Mineral Con-
chology.” The drawing represents it exactly. It is @
carbonate of lime. You see but two sides, or the half
of it, yet from them you may get a good idea of the
whole. No. 2, 3, is a petrified shell, classed by Sowerby
under the genus Terebratula, although this species is a non-
descript. I would propose for itthe name of “ terebratula
pennata,” as the projections on its sides may well represen
*
Teeth and Bones of the Mammoth. 245
indentation, forming a semicircle in the centre of the beaks.
This beautiful specimen is a light drab-coloured limestone.
Fig. 3, shews the hinge of “ terebratula pennata.
o. 4, is a very beautiful specimen, and belongs toa new
species at least, if not a new genus. It was found by my
little daughter. It is not injured as most other specimens
are, as its shell is almost perfect. The drawing shews its
size.
Fig. 5, a detached vertebra of an encrinite, though lar-
ger, than described by Parkinson. This is composed o
limestone, and the surface is beautifully and distinctly artic-
ulated. Ihave many specimens of the encrinite ; some quite
perfect. ; |
* * . % & ed
Notice respecting the teeth and bones of the Mammoth or
Mastodon.
Oct. 11, 1819.—The teeth of the mastodon in my pos-
session, resemble those of carniverous animals more than
any with which I am acquainted. hose found in this
' state, vary in size, and are always found in alluvial earth, or
in the beds of creeks. One of mine, were it not broken off,
would weigh nine or ten pounds ; the weight of the other
is given, as wellas its size. The latter, was found by a
child, at play in a small rivulet, near the Pickaway plains ;
the former was found in the bed of salt creek, twenty-two
feet nine inches below the surfaee, by Judge Givens, of
Jackson county, Ohio, while engaged in digging for salt wa-
ter. Two or more ribs, several joints of the backbone, Xc.
were found with it. Near this place several teeth of the
mammoth belonging to different individuals, have been found
at different times, some of them lying on the surface of the
earth, and a few relics below it; the former, I should ratherSus-
pect, were brought here, principally by the Indians, the latter
lay in the place where the animals died. A large thigh bone
Was lately found near this town in digging a mill-race. Sev-
eral teeth of the mastodon have been found along the Scio-
to river, on the southern beach of Lake Erie, and at Day-
on on the Great Miami. Several bones helonging to this
Vou. IT.....No. 2. . 32
246 Dewey’s Geological Section.
animal have been discovered near Cincinnati, and some
in a good state of preservation in the counties of Athens and
Meigs. ;
~ References.
[Print at the end.]
No. 1,2, B. two views ofa mastodon’s tooth, found in the bed of a
sealbey river near Pickaway plains, pha Weight, 5lbs. 6 1-2
inches from A. to r.—from 1, to1.
No. 1, 2, A. two views of a 48 found 1 in alluvial earth , twenty-
iwo feet nine inches, below the surface, im digging a salt well a
the Scioto salt-works. These teeth are in the epiutt of Caleb
Atwater, Circleville, Ohio. The latter tooth weighs nine pounds,
though several fragments have been eres off. Its original weight
was probably from 12 to 14 lbs. at lea
Arr. VI. be Sai section from Taconick range, in Will-
oe Dias to the city of Troy, on the Hudson, by Profes-
sor Dewey.
Williamstown, July 4th, 1820.
ae TO PROFESSOR SILLIMAN.
Dear Sir, | !
I ivrormep you sometime ago, that I intended to contin-
ue the Geological Section from the Taconick range, in this
town, to the city of Troy, on the Hudson. I have before
noticed the rocks on thetroads from this place to. Troy;
North and South of the direct line, and I have lately passed
on this line from Troy, through Brunswick, rat, and
Petersburgh, over the Taconick range, to this town.—
Through these three towns to Troy, the distance foot the
est line o f Massachusetts, i is very nearly twenty miles in
line ; and as the rocks are similar on the routes
North and South of it, the geology will embrace a section
several miles in width. It will be recollected, that the rocks
of the Taconick range in this town, were stated to be argil-
laceous-slate, chlorite-slate, and talcose-slate. The last pre-
dominates, and abounds on the descent of the range ito
the valley of Petersburgh. This valley, of variable breadth,
extends ‘several miles North and South, and is travers-
,
| Dewey’s Geological Section. 247
ed by a stream which runs northward, into Hoosack River.
{n this valley is found abundantly the same mixture of chlo-
rite and quartz, which is so common in Williamstown,
though the two vallies are separated by the Taconick range,
having an elevation from 1000 to 1400 feet. As this range
is broken through by the Hoosack, a few miles North, and
as the same mixture may be traced, and often found abun-
dantly along the Hoosack, to the stream which runs through
Petersburgh, the chlorite and quartz, undoubtedly follow up
this stream, through the valley. On the West side of this
valley, and about seventeen miles East of Troy, lies
Chlorite Slate, very distinctly characterized. It is some-
times narrow, and sometimes two or three miles in width,
often rising into hills 200 or 300 feet high. As this rockis .
found on the Taconick range, and forms a part of it, espe-
cially a few miles North of this place, it ought perhaps to
be considered-as belonging to the range, and as the rock in-
to which the talcose slate actually passes. _ Its strata extend
into the next rock, or
sts
quartz, cemented by a greenish argillaceous substance, whic
very fine, but generally is readily seen by the eye, and is
Occasionally so large and abundant, that it resembles breccia.
The fracture often shews the quartz to have been rounded
Masses, and in these cases the stone does not appear por-
phyritic. In other-cases the stone is so very compact and
close-grained, containing also feldspar, that it might have pas-
sed for porphyry, had it not been connected with speci-
mens which could not be mistaken. This rock, though
quite tough in the cross fracture, readily breaks into pris-
matic fragments, along its veins, which are usually filled
248 Dewey's Geological Section.
with quartz. By the action of the weather, sec rocks are
divided into innumerable prismatic bodies. A small stream,
which rises in the mountains in the East part of Grafton,
and runs westward into the Hudson, below T roy, affords
an excellent opportunity for examining the ober of this
rock in numerous places. Occasionally there appear in
this rock, beds, or veins, of a reddish argillaceous slate, in
Grafton and Brunswick.
Near Troy, the graywacke has a much finer texture, and
darker colour, and some of it takes a fine polish.* Where
- e graywacke stops near Troy, there begins a bed or stra-
of
erittiieots Slate.—It extends to the bank of the Hud-
son, and has a similar inclination to the East. It hte
doubtless be considered as the next rock in order
forming an extensive bed in the graywacke. It is "full of
natural seams, which divide it into small plates, and easily
a ag A large quantity, eee into a street in
y the action of the weather, and constant travel-
ling hits "tk become in one year, baile e clay. Both the
graywacke and argillite are evidently transition rocks.* The
slate is very different from that which oceurs in Williams-
town, and along this part of the Taconick range, and which
ms to me clearly primitive. It will doubtless be found
by future observation, that the roof-slate of Hoosack, N. ¥
which appears to be a continuation of the Taconick range, is
separated from the argillaceous transition slate, which ex-
tends for many miles along the Hudson, below and above
Troy, by the same stratum of graywacke, I noticed no
gray wacke-slate on this section, but it is found very ane
in Chatham, a few miles southeast of Albany. Specim
of the above rocks will soon be forwarded to the Cleotogical
society.
Should you think the above worthy of publication, I
should be glad to see it because this section will be pretty
vate nee from atone miles East of ——— river to
e Hudson.
* * * a * *
* See Eaton’s Geology.
-
2
Dewey’s Geological Section. 249
Wavellite 2
I have lately analysed a mineral, found by Mr. Emmons,
in an iron mine in Richmond,-in this county. It is new, or
a new variety of Wavellite. “oe,
Colour, greenish white ; scratches crystalized carbonate
of lime, but is less hard than fluate of lime; infusible by
the blowpipe ; and sp. gr. about 2. 4. It occurs in a sta-
lactical form, or as an incrustation, presenting many small
mamillary concretions, which, as well as the stalactites, are
composed of minute radiating crystals, or crystaline fibres.
Its lustre is rather weak—rather tough to break, but is pul-
verised without difficulty in a glass mortar. It contains a
little less than seventy per. cent. of alumine, much water,
and a little lime and silex. From an examination of seve-
ral specimens, the lime appears to be variable. The above
characters bring it so near wavellite, that I am inclined to
think it only a variety.
When pulverised, it is nearly all dissolved in solution of
pure potash by heat. If nitric acid be poured on the solution,
very nearly the whole is dissolved asa nitrate. The re-
mainder is clearly silex. If the nitrate be mixed with car-
um. ‘There can be no doubt of the general constituents.
* Aletter from Dr. Torrey, to the Editor, dated Sept. 22d, confirms this
Statement, and promises a detailed analysis, which we should be glad to
See, especially as it appears that the analysis of the Wavellite has been re-
mine, 35, 35: phosphoric acid, 33, 40 ; fluoric acid, 2, 06; lime 0, 50;
$¥ids of iron and manganese, 1, 24; water, 26, 80.
250 Remarks on the environs of Carthage Bridge.
Arr. VIL Remarks:on the environs of Carthage Bridge,
near the mouth of the Genesee River ; by Dr. Joun I. Bres-
BY, of the medical Staff of the British army in Canada.
TO PROFESSOR SILLIMAN.
Sir,
_ 1 uave the honor of addressing to you a few observa-
tions, on the environs of the justly celebrated bridge at Car-
thage, on the Genesee river, in the State of New-Yor
T enesee river falls into lake Ontario, on its South
coast, sthgit ninety miles from Fort Niagara. At its mouth,
on the left sloping grassy bank, stands the village of Char-
lottestown, a small, and irregular cluster, of dwellings, stores
and taverns. The river is here perhaps two hundred yards
broad, but it varies much during its course. The banks soon
rise to the height of from 80, to 140 feet, and continue to as-
cend to the first falls, five miles from the lake, where they
are 196 feet high. ‘They are always steep and ys with
. trees, oe cedar and hemlock, growing among ferru-
rown sandstone in debris, and shivered ‘hodewstll
laye
"The Steam-boat Ontario, from Lewistown; stops at * Han-
fords Landing,” a mile below the first falls ; where two
torage houses and a small wharf stand on a narrow slip of
enpiind, under the high and woody steeps.——A winding road
leads up the precipice.
On the summit of this road we are surprised to find our-
selves at once, in a populous district, among cultivated
grounds, and handsome stores and houses, distributed ace
cording to the interest of the proprietors.
Advancing a mile, along the river, on the road to Roches-
ter, through | fields and woods, we arrive in view of Car-
e bridge. It is first seen from a small elevation, to
cross among lofty and dense foliage, a gulf 200 feet deep,
and wide, whose mural sides are curiously — by
white and red ‘strata. At the near end, a tasteful lodge is
erected for the accommodation of the toll-gatherer.
It consists of a single arch, 342 feet in width, a segment
of a circle, I believe. The whole edifice is of Wood,” an
is 740 feet long. Its breadth allows of sige railed paths,
Remarks on the environs of Carthage Bridge. 251
on each side, for foot passengers, and of ample space in the
middle for carriages to pass each other. The approach at
either extremity being a gentle descent, a slight concavity
is therefore given to the road over it, to preserve its even-
ness and continuity. It cost 16,000 dollars, and to the hon-
or of the American name, is the work of the artizans of
the neighbourhood.* The toll is very unproductive ; but
the lands in its vicinity have risen considerably in value.
T need scarcely observe, that from the water, at the dis-,
tance of three hundred yards, it forms a grand and singu-
lar spectacle. The gloom of the narrowed and sunken river,
gives a glow and brightness to the objects above, and espe-
cially to this graceful and Iris-like fabric, which is seen
white, and high in the air, striding the, precipice, and par-
tially concealed in pines, oak and beeches. Looking on-
ward, under the arch, the view is speedily terminated by a
very picturesque cascade seventy feet high: the quantity ’
of water is not great, but is most advantageously displayed,
y dashing on two successive ledges, from which, archin
beautifully, it loses itself in the wreathing spray, that ever
plays around the foot of the bare red rock. It is surroun-
- in the back ground by finely disposed foliage of various
inds.
On crossing the bridge, (still proceeding to Rochester,)
we find a straggling assemblage of houses, called Carthage,
all evidently of the most recent date, and of ordinary ap-
pearance, except two exquisite specimens of domestic arch-
itecture. They are superbly furnished, and seem rather to
be denizens of the most refined cities, than of this wilder-
hess. ‘The town is principally occupied by husbandmen,
and contains the common proportion of well frequented
taverns, but no church. The land is undulating, and full of
Stumps, and blackened decaying trees.
Passing to the right, on the high banks of the Genesee,
and through mingled cleared grounds and woods, for three
hundred ards or more, we meet with another fall of ninety
feet in height, and apparently more plentifully supplied with
Water ; which passes in an unbroken, and almost transparent
curtain, over a gracefully curving line of rocks. It 1s also
embellished with trees and small heights. A mill is erect-
“It was erected from scaffolding ‘on the bed of the river, which here
contains very little water. _ me ss
252 Remarks on the environs of Carthage Bridge.
ing to take advantage of a part of its water ;—as has been
done at the five minor falls which pour over the adjacent
West bank, at some distance from each other. They are
the outlets of channels which the level of the country, now
low and swampy, has permitted to form.
The town of Rochester is half a mile higher up the river,
a good road, through the woods and fields leading to it. In
June, 1819, this Settlement was four years old, and then con-
tained b
The inns are excellent; and the stores frequently with their
gables to the street, are shewy and well stocked. The town
possesses a printing office and newspaper. The streets are
scarce cleared of the tree-stumps ; but they are lively an
merce and manufactures are carried on with the
facilities and steadiness of a Hanse town, whose organiza-
tion poses the experience of a thousand years.
all the town is on the West side of the river, but
many roid houses are on the other, and comraunicate by a
common wooden bridge of three abutments. Looking up-
wards from this bridge, you have rapids passing noisily over
two ledges of rock which at the distance of fifty and a hun-
dred yards cross the widened river. The left shore isa slo-
ping meadow : the right is low, and intersected by numer-
ous streamlets, each of which has its petty cascade, and its
mill he mi: wood, and Bours: Woods are close at hand in
The: view downwards is ‘soinatiins: sduatiiee. The West
side’ is more covered with houses and opulent. establish-
ments, which, indeed, stretch a mile or more.
The stratification of the banks of the Genesee river, can
be best observed about Carthage bridge. Here they are
perpendicular, and dilate so as to give the horse-shoe form
to. the chasm included between the bridge and first fall—
es at the same time under the former. Large mas-
of debris occupy the foot of these walls. The West
side of the precipice above the bridge is imperfect ; a nat-
row grassy ledge having formed at midheight, su eceeded by
a steep slope, which is loaded with trees. The higher por-
cae im general, are often much comminuted and ie
ea
“The rocks on bolts sides se: the: river at this is point soak at
diffe erent parts of the side, corr in kind and
situation.
|
|
:
Remarss on the environs of Carthage Bridge. 253
The upper strata are limestone, and are here inaccessi-
ble, but can be better investigated at the second falls. A
brown, compact conchoidal lime is the first; the next is
brown, rather erystaline, and full of shells of a pearly lustre ;
a third is bluish and contains fewer shells. Broader layers
succeed, having black flint nodules imbedded.
The order of the whole succession of strata is as follows:
ns Layers of Limestone.
—— Limestone and bluish Shale alternating in this stratum.
es
Ferruginous Sandstone.
Greyish blue Shale, as at the falls of Niagara—very dusky.
A white Clay—giving not the minutest effervescence in
acids.
Dark red Sandstone ; bighly ferrnginous—in many parts
having globules of black metallic lustre.
; As No. 10, but of lighter colour.
As No, 10.
Do. but stratified thus.
Bright red ferruginous Sandstone, with yellow spots, and
circlets on the fracture surfaces. It isa Compac
Nos. 7, and 8, have each one line of division.
—
Shale alternately grey and red.
The surface of some of the sandstones, as No. 10, is im-
pressed with the figure of confused bunches of twigs or
ranches, having transverse ribs at regular distances, like
e€ bamboo cane. No. 6, contains a few pebbles, and ma-
ny elongated univalve shells. Among the debris of this
chasm, a ferruginous puddingstone of quartz pebbles occurs,
but I could not find it in position.
The banks of this river are highest at Carthage bridge.
From their gradual subsidence towards the lake ; and from
their higher parts being covered with soil, little limestone is
seen below ; while above the first fall, (excepting the low-
€st stratum,) no other is met with—but the successive bluffs
Which it forms are so shivered and moulded that their strati-
Vou. I1.....No. 2. 33
254 Botany.
fication, colours, &c. are very indistinct. At the second
fall, and near Rochester, this rock is less disintegrated.
JOHN I. BIGSBY, M. D.
Quebec, April, 1820. _ Assistant Staff Surgeon.
BOTANY.
———o
Arr. VIL. Floral Calendar, for the years 1815, 16, 17,
18, and 19 ; ee “ Deerfield, Mass, North Lat. 42° 28,
est Long. 72 9’.—One hundred miles from the sea
coast.— By. Dr. Saas Coo.ey.
In this calendar, a few of the most common plants are
selected, because the change in these at the time of flow-
ering is most striking, and because they are most widely
dissetninated through the country ; and are, therefore the
est species for corresponding observations. The first col-
umn marks the first change in the foliation of a forest of
oaks, chesnut, maple, and birch, perceptible at Be dis-
tance of half a mile. This change, it is well known, is
generally very rapid and distinguishable ; and therefore it
was thought proper to be noticed.
“Forest tepitty —. -tree in Common red gard
full flower. Cherry in full Siiver. ‘Years.
May 15 May 28 1815
fone 27 May 11 1816
8 24 13. 1817
Bhe 2: 30 29 1818
7 24 22 1819
Red Currant Martins first Barn Swallows Harvest of English
infullflower. appeared. first appeared ai '
May 11 April 22 April 24 Nicos 8
ees 1, ee May 1 July 28
23 ey ed April 17 20
20 24 26. yk
mark.—Such concise results of extended obsetyations
are desirable. but it may not always be convenient to inse
very voluminous details of daily floral occurrences.— * tea]
Botany. 255
Arr. IX. May not the state of those indigenous plants,
which blossom late in the season, indicate a late or an ear-
ly autumn ? by Professor Dewey. "
Tue flowering of plants early or late in the spring, and
the maturity of fruits early or late in the summer, are ever
considered proof of an early or late season. The following
acts give some plausibility to the opinion that the state of
the later plants may be some index also to the season of
autumn. ‘They are the result of observations for the last
four years. The plants which invariably flower compara-
tively late in the season, at this place, are several species of
aster, and solidago, and gentiana, and hamamelis virginica.
{n all these plants, except hamamelis, whose fruit is ripened
the succeeding spring and summer, the process of maturing
heir seed seems to proceed rapidly, and the cooler tempe-
rature of Autumn to be favorable to this process. The sum-
mers of 1816 and 1817 were considerably colder than those
of 1818 and 1819. The mean temperature of the three
summer months was as follows—for 1816, 63° 46 ; 1817,
64° 41 ; 1818, 68° 57; 1819, 68° 84. The season of
4816 will long be remembered for its cold. In this year,
however, hamamelis and some species of solidago, which
were all I then noticed, blossomed earlier than in either of
the last two years. And in 1817, several species of the
above genera flowered from ten to fourteen days earlier than
m the two following years. But in 1816 and 1817 the au-
much earlier, or vegetation was stopped by the
cold much earlier than in 1818 and 1819. In 1816 the
first severe frost was August 29th, and after September 20th
severe frosts were frequent. In 1817 the first severe frost
was October Ist, and they occurred often after the middle
of the month. In 1818, except on September 27th, there
were no frosts of consequence till November. ‘Th t
hard frost was October 6th, in 1819; and again towards the
end’ of the month. The above mentioned plants are
uninjured by frosts which will kill our exotics. They can-
not, however, endure repeated and severe frosts. So much
later did these plants blossom in 1818, than in 1817, that it
seemed impossible for their seed to be matured, unless the
Severe frosts should be later than in 1817, and I was thence
256 Botany.
led to remark to several persons the probability that the au-
tumn would be later. For the same reason 1 made the
same remark last autumn. In both cases the lamas was
verified by fact. The promise of God, ‘that seed-time
and harvest shall not cease,” and the ortinsnsa “let the
earth bring forth grass, the herb yielding seed, and the
fruit-tree yielding fruit after his kind,” while they are not
inconsistent with the failure of harvest and fruit in a partie-
ular place, or with the extinction of some species of vegeta-
bles, seem to authorize the general expectation that the
fruits will be matured, and that when the time of flowering
is later, the season will be adapted to the state of the plants.
As we have earlier and later autumns, it is at least worthy of
observation, whether the time of flowering of the later
plants does not correspond to them. Botany might, per-
haps, be then applied to anotiier practical advantage. he
plants would be very easily known from their being late 1”
_ flowering.
If it be true that the cooler part of the season is more fa-
vorable to the vegetation of the above plants, as the differ-
ence in the time of their flowering seems to indicate, there
is an obvious reason why their flowering should take place
sans in a Pooler, than in a warmer summer. A similat
will doubtless account in st for the well known
fooh, that if oo flowers of the annual plants be cut off, new
shoots set for flowers, and actually blossom Bie! in much
less time. The difference in the temperature, from that
naturally adapted to them, appears to change their course
of growth and to bring their seed in less time to maturity 3
so that the plants appear to adapt themselves to their situa-
tion, and the season, in order to perfect their seed.
The preceding facts may seem to throw some uncertain-
ty upon the results of observations made for the purpose of
ascertaining the climate of different places from the time of
the flowering of plants. In places not very remote, here
ever, the results would not be affected in a given year.
servations for one year, would not evidently be sufficient, Z
the places bias distant. A series of observations for as ma-
ny years as would be required to effect the same object by
the shesineaeentl would be necessary. In addition to this
there must be more uncertainty in the results, if the places
be not remote, when the smaller and annual plants are se-
Botany. 257
jected for observation, rather than the larger plants, and es-
pecially trees. That such observations may be relied upon,
the same plants should be observed, and the circumstances
of place, soil, aspect, exposure to winds, &c. should be similar.
All these affect the plant, and alter the time of flowering.
L have known the common dandelion in blossom here on
the 18th of March, though it does not usually flower till
about five or six weeks later. Claytonia spatulata flowers
some weeks earlier on a southern aspect, and where it is al-
so protected from winds, than on a northern aspect, only a
few rods from the former. e same is true of epigaea
repens. 'Tussilago farfara blossoms some days earlier on the
wild bank of a brook, than in the warm and rich soil of a
garden. Chrysosplenium oppositifolium, shews its. flow-
ferent in different places, that the results cannot be very sat-
isfactory when the smaller and annual plants are observed.
There is another circumstance also, which increases this un-
certainty, if the places be considerably remote. There may
be several days in the beginning of April, for instance, warm-
er at one place than at another. As this would there bring
forward the earliest plants sooner, a warmer climate would
be indicated. But, should a few cooler days succeed, as is
usually the case, vegetation might be no earlier on the
Whole after a fortnight, than in those years in which the
saine plants first showed their blossoms several days later.
I have occasionally found a plant in blossom here, about a
month preceding the time given by Muhlenberg for its
flowering in Pennsylvania. These facts prove, not that the
flowering of plants does not indicate difference of climate,
Sut that much accuracy of observation, for a series of years,
is necessary, @# those plants be selected for observation,
Which are easily affected by changes of temperature, as-
pect, &c. in order to ascertain the climate or comparative
mean temperature of different places.
In respect to trees, the case is somewhat different. They
are not so readily affected by changes of temperature. But
the above mentioned circumstances of situation are seen ev-
ery year to have considerable influence upon their time of
flowering. The result of observations on trees will, how-
258. Botany.
ever, be most entitled to confidence. Dr. Bigelow, in his
paper on this subject, an abstract of which was given in the
ist No. of this Journal, selected the Peach-tree, from the
3
a
n
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a4
os
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Cad +
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Ss
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+O
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w
oO
a
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io)
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ot
mn
is°)
ies}
ine
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ve
sirable to prosecute the subject, and that several trees
should be observed at each place, and at the same stage of
flowering. ‘The last particular appears very important. For
rom the conclusion of Dr. Bigelow, it will be seen, that a
difference of about four days, corresponds to a difference of
one degree of latitude. Observers may be expected to
differ at least two days in the time that a tree may be thought
to be fully in bloom.
have made these obvious remarks, because they pre-
sent some of the difficulties in obtaining very definite and
conclusive results upon climate from the flowering of plants,
unless there be very accurate and continued observations ;
and, I have made them in this place, because they were con-
nected with the immediate object. Whether these difficul-
ties be considered as great as they appear to me, the con-
clusion 'to be drawn from the observations upon the last four
years in Sa to a late or an yam f autumn, will not be es-
sentially affect
Williams Calves, April, 1820.
ZN
FOR THE AMERICAN JOUR. OF ‘SCIENCE. ;
Arr. X. On the manufacture of Sugar from the River Ma-
“ ts (Acer eriocarpum, of Linnaus 3) by Dr. Jou
OCKE.
T seems not to be generally known, that sugar is rect
cay in any considerable quantity, by any oi see
the sugar maple, (Acer saccharinuin ;) bait T have Pound ‘ht
in some parts of New-England, more sugar is made from
the river, than from the sugar maple.
The facts I have uséoriaiied: with regard to the ma-
king of sugar from the river maple, I collected in Fryeburg;
(Me. ) on the Saco river, where large quantities are annually
made ; but before I state them, I will give some account of
the tivo species, the sugar and river maple.
Botany, 259
by the fruit, which consists of two peculiar seed-vessels,
united at their base, each dilated into a membranous wing
above, which serves to suspend it awhile in the air as it
falls :
The family of maples is distinguished from other plants,
i
1. The Sucar Marie, (Acer saccharinum, Linn.) called
also rock maple, has leaves five-parted, and yellowish gree
flowers on flower-stalks. It is one of the largest and lofti-
est trees in our forests. [ts trunk is usually straight and en-
tire to the height of from 40 to 80 feet, where it suddenly
unfolds into a dense top, crowded with rich foliage. The
bark of the older trees is of a grey colour, and marked with
numerous deep clefts. The wood is firm and heavy, though
not durable. It is used for various work by carpenters and_
cabinet makers. Micheaux says, that it grows in its greatest
perfection, between the 43d and 46th degrees of North lat-
itude, and of course, in the northern part of our States, and
in Canada. . ae
The River Marte (Acer eriocarpum of Linneus,) called
also White maple,* and by Eaton Silver maple, is distin-
guished by having its leaves five-parted, and white beneath;
its flowers reddish yellow, without flower-stalks, and with
woolly germe. The trunk frequently divides near the
ground, so as to appear like several trunks close together.
these divisions diverge a little as they rise, and often at the
height of from eight to twenty feet the top commences. It
1s generally larger in proportion to the trunk, than the top.
Ol any other tree. he bark has its clefts more distant than
in the sugar maple, and is. more inclined to scale off. It
blossoms earlier than the sugar maple. The fruit is larger
than that of other species, it advances with great rapidi-
ty towards perfection, ripens and falls in June, and produces
a plantule the same season, sufficiently hardy to withstand
the succeeding winter. ‘he fruit of the sugar maple does
hOt ripen unti} October. The river maple is principally
ound on the banks of rivers, and on the banks of such only
as have a clean gravelly bottom, and clear water. It is most
luxuriant, on such flats as are subject to annual inundations,
and is usually the first settler on such flats as are making in-
* Micheaux says, that in the Atlantic States, this species is confounded
with the common red maple, but in the Western States, it is generally dis-
“ngnished-and known by the name of White Maple.
~
260 Botany.
to the bends of alps by allavial deposits, the opposite
bank being at the same time worn away. ‘ The banks of
the Sandy river, in Maine” says Micheaux, “ and those of the
Connecticut in dsor,(Vt.) are the most northerly points
at which I have seen the white maple. It is found more or
less on all the rivers in the United States, flowing from the
mountains to the Atlantic, but becomes scarce in South-Car-
olina and Georgia. In no part of the United States is it
more multiplied than in the western country, and no where
is its vegetation more luxuriant than on the banks of the
hio, and of the great rivers that empty into it. There
sometimes alone, and sometimes mingled with the willow,
which is found all along these waters, it contributes singular-
ly by its magnificent foliage to the embellishment of the
scene. The brilliant white of the leaves beneath, forms a
striking contrast with the bright green above, and the alter-
nate reflection of these two surfaces in the water, heightens
the beauty of this wonderful moving mirror, and aids in
fnnies an enchanting picture, which during my long ex-
ions in a canoe, in these regions of solitude and silence,
I contemplated with unwearied admiration.” I have seen
itin Maine, en the banks and islands of ae Androscog ggin,
on the Sunday river, a tributary of the Androscoggin, wi
remarkable crystaline water, and on the Saco where it is
abundant, and attains a large size, especially in and ovr)
teen and « i feet in circumference. I have seen it in
ral of these places, particularly on -e Saco and Androscog-
gin, it grows in great luxuriance, and occupies considerable
iracts, nearly to she exclusion of all other trees. I never
contemplated a picture in landscape with more delight, than
I have the banks of some of these streamsp#when viewed
from the opposite shore. The tops of the trees present one
conti range of foliage, which rises like a fleecy cloud,
changing beautifully i in the wind, as the upper green or the
under white surface is presented to view. This cloud of
leaves, is supported by the clusters of trunks, like so many
gothic pillars, forming a variety of deep shaded arches and
avenues beneath. I mention its beauty, because I think it
deserves attention as an ornamental tree. Ina poem writ-
Botany. 261
ten in Erpehuee ‘tgs “ The Village,” the following lines are
bestowed upon
* More sacred than the thunder chosen oak
the
eo “The ueen of trees, thou pro sadist ue? st on high,
“ Yet wave thy limbs in graceful plian cy.”
* * * + * x
Sa the bark gives a black colour with the salts of iron.
In many places thread and other stuffs are coloured black
with a decoction of the bark = this as well as that of the
red maple, and ink is made o
the first volume of Tilloch’s magazine is an account of
the manufacture of sugar from the sugar maple in the mid-
dle states by the late Dr. Rush of Philadelphia, from which
the following particulars are abstracted:
1. One tree yields from twenty to thirty gallons of sap in
a season, which will make from five to six pounds of sugar,
and in a single instance twenty pounds were made from one
tree in a season.
2. One man made six hundred and forty pounds in four
weeks.
3. A man ard his two sons made eighteen hundred
pounds in a season
4. That wae tree improves by tapping, affording more
tia better sa
5. The sugar is of a better quality than West-India sugar.
6. A farmer in North-Hampton county (Penn.) improv-
ed the quality of the maple sap by calvare;:2 so that he ob-
* According to my observations the sap improves in quality but 3 much
‘diminish nished in quantity.
Vou. I1.....No. 2. 34
(262 Botany.
tained one pound of sugar from three —, while it re-
quired five or six gallons from a tree in its w
7. That a few acres of land planted with eal and im-
proved as a sugar orchard, would probably ay more profit-
able than the same ground devoted to fruit ti
8. That the buds and twigs of the sugar mae are used
for food for cattle in the winter and spring
I had for several years known that Fryeburg was celebra-
in that town. On enquiring into the subject [ learned the
following particulars :
1. The sugar in F ryeburg is not made from the sugar ma-
ple but from the river maple, (eer eriocarpum) which
abounds there on the banks of the Sac
2. About four gallons of sap afford one pound of sugar.
_ 3. Two men in 1819 made twelve hundred pounds from
two hundred and twenty-five trees, ae two taps to a tree,
equal to five and one third pounds to
4. The sap was 5 generally. said to be pon ste than that of
the sugar ma
4A particular cluster. of trunks springing apparently
from. the same root, tapped in several places aBeted-s twen-
of an inone day! |.
6. Those make sugar from the sugar and-river ma-
ples growing. "together, iciled the. profarence to the river
Bs The sugar is miter and of a better quality than that of
the sugar maple.
8. A peculiar method of tapping is practised in Fryeburg.
The incision from which the sap issues is made by driving
a gouge a little obliquely upward, an inch or more into the
wood. A spout or tap about a foot long, to conduct off the
sap, is inserted about two inches belaw. this. incision with
the same gouge. The two incisions are situated thus: =
rincipal- advantage of this method is, that the wound
in the tree is so small that it is perfectly healed or “ grown
over’ in two years, the tree sustaining little or no. injury.
The other common methods of tapping are two. 1. With
Micheaus says, that the rac made from the river maple on the Ovi, is
chine and more agreeable to the taste than that from the sugar maple
Botany. 263
an axe. An oblique incision three or four inches long, is
made in such a manner that all the sap will be conducted to ”
the lower corner, where it passes into a spout inserted
with a gouge as above. Disadvantages of this method.
The surface being much exposed to the air and sun, is pres-
ently dried, so as to diminish very much the quantity of
sap. ‘Ihe wound in the tree is extensive and a ruinous de- -
cay is often the consequence, the tree becoming rotten-
hearted. 2. With anauger. The tree is peforated an inch
or more with an auger three fourths of an inch diameter,
and a tube made of elder or sumach is inserted to conduct
off the sap. The end of the tube is made tapering so as to
bear only at the outer edge of the tube. bathe
The tap presses upon the external grains so as to obstruct
the flow of sap from them; and it is from these external
grains that most of the sap is obtained. The method of
tapping with the gouge is undoubtedly superior to either of
the others, but in a sugar’ maple there might be difficulty
in inserting the gouge to a sufficient depth on account of its
superior harduess. ;
). The river maple grows about an inch in diameter in a
year. This I ascertained by measuring the thickness of the
concentric grains. There are several sugar orchards in
Fryeburg which have grown up within twenty-five years to
trees about five feet circumference, and from fifty to seven-
ty feet high. The seeds are so abundantly distributed there
by means of their peculiar wings that they spring up in the
ploughed fields, on the sand flats, in the road, and in every
place where they can take root.
Tt will be seen that in my account of the quantity of su-
gar made from a tree, &c. there is a singular coincidence
with Dr. Rush’s statements. This is altogether accidental
for the quantity varies greatly in all trees according to their
Situation, age, the. season and other circumstances. In
ome seasons only about a pound to a tree is obtained.
It seems that the superiority of the river over the sugar
Maple as a sugar tree is not universal; for Micheaux says,
that on the Ohio only one half the quantity is obtained from
the river, that is afforded by the sugar maple.
I have communicated this paper principally for the pur-
pose of recommending the cultivation of the river maple as
an ornamental tree, instead of others less beautiful and less
264 ~ Botany.
useful. It seems to be adapted to this purpose, on account
of its beauty, the rapidity of its growth and the fine sugar it
affo
ffords.
Although the idea of Dr. Rush, that the United States
might be more than supplied with sugar from the maple, and
the quantity of human suffering consequently diminished,
by rendering the employment of slaves in the West-Indies
unnecessary, seems not likely to be realized, yet I think
the cultivation of the maple ought not to be overlooked, es-
pecially as it might afford some supply in case the importa-
tion of sugar should, at any time, be interrupted by political
disturbances. .
‘The river maple would thrive best no doubt in a situation
similar to that which it occupies in its native state, i. e. on
the flats of clear streams. That it will grow however im
other situations seems to be confirmed by the following
facts. Micheaux states that “ in Europe it is multiplied in
nurseries and gardens. Its rapid growth affords hopes ot
cultivating it with profit in this quarter of the world.”
Mr. Cook, Preceptor of Fryeburg Academy, informed me
that he planted some of the seeds in his garden, which is on
a dry elevated sandy plain, and raised trees from them,
which grew so rapidly, and monopolized so much ground,
that he found it necessary ina few years, to extirpate them.
Boston, Apri 20.
* :
Arr. XI. On the Oriental Chené, and the Oil which it af-
fords.
Rocxy-sroox, 9th mo. 13th, 1820.
TO THE EDITOR OF THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE, &C-
I am induced to enquire of readers, and correspondents;
to thy valuable miscellany, whether the Oriental Chené
might not be more extensively cultivated in the United
States for the purpose of extracting its invaluable oil? It
is a species of sesamum, (class dydinamia, order angiospet-
mia of Linneus, Sesamum folius ovato oblongis integris of
Miller—Digitalis orientalis, sesamum dicta—Tournefort,)
and is thus described by Miller :—“ This plant was intro-
Botany. 265
duced into Carolina by the African negroes, where it suc-
ceeds extremely well. ‘The inhabitants of that country
make an oil from the seed, which will keep many years,
and not take any rancid smell. or taste ; ; but in two years
becomes quite mild, so that when the warm taste of the
seed which was in the oil when first drawn, is worn off,
pe use it as a sallad oil, and for all the purposes of sweet
A late writer, (Darby,) speaking of —- says it
might indeed be made an universal object of cu e
seed vessel isa many seeded capsula, mere Saad oily
seeds, which are used in various ways by the negroes, who
cook it as a pulse. It has been long known to produce an
oil, containing all the valuable qualities of olive oil, without
the same liability of ene rancid by age. The Chené
is certainly one of the most sphrasae vegetables that was
ever cultivated by man. is known in Louisiana, but
much neglected. Being statight from the western coast of
Africa, from the banks of alluvial rivers, its growth is luxuri-
ant on the fertile borders of the Mississippi and say vit
will also vegetate extremely well on a high dry so
_Thave been led to the foregoing enquiry from i suppo-
sition that such an oil would be a great acquisition on many
accounts, and a knowledge that it may be applied to many
useful purposes in mechanics. It is well known that a thin
fat oil, which will bear exposure to heat, and air, without
ecoming rancid, fora great length of time, is the grand de-
sideratum in Horology. Provided it is not glutinous, or too
volatile, the spirit obtained by freezing and pouring off the
thinner part that it may not be affected by cold, would
have many advantages over the different kinds now in use,
of which are liable to become rancid, and of course, un-
suitable for such purposes. The spirit of common olive oil
is mostly used, but soon becomes unfit; and the objection
is ‘ equally applicable to that obtained from spermaceti.—
ere have been several methods proposed for remedying
this defect in oils, such as shaking them with pearlash wa-
ter, or pouring melted led into them, etcetera ; all of which,
on experiment, have been found objectionable; the first ev-
idently extracts the thinnest, consequently richest and most
poor ge the last renders it acrid and ry ceca
266 Strong’s Problenis.
MATHEMATICS.
<<
Arr. XII. Mathematical Problems, with Geometrical Con-
struetions and Demonstrations, by Professor THropork
Srronc.
OTRONG
[Continued from page 64 of this Volume. }
Prosiem [X.
fr is required through a given point to describe a circle
—, shall touch two circles given in position and magni-
ey eee When the two circles are unequal, and the cir-
cle which touches them does not circumscribe them
Const. Let L (Fig. 1. pl. 2.) be the given point, and
, HG, E the given circles. It is required to describe
dan li a circle which shall touch the two given circles.
Join the centres x, y, of the circles HBC, DGE by ay, 0
extend wy till it meets FG, (FG being draw n, (Prob. v
ase i.) touching the two circles) i in A. Let x dans os
cut the apt circles in B, C, D, E. Through L the-given
point, and C, D, thet two ‘adjacent ints, in which AE cuts
i i ie circle LCD. Join
Docistsvabions: For join AH, and xine it tll it meets
the circle DG in It will meet this circle, because it cuts
off similar sepments from the two given cireles, (Prob. ¥ vil.)
And let AH meet the circle HLK in P. Now by the ae
, Al, (Prob. viii. Cor. 4.) Therefore AH, AI==AL,
ie But AL, AK=AH, Al’. Therefore AH, Al==AH,
Al. Hence (striking out AH) AI==AI’. Wherefore ioe
points I’, I coincide. Therefore the circle oer ets
the ciréle DG, Ein I
It also touches it in this point; for if se line MO be
drawn touching KLH, BRH in H, and the line No. 2 touch-
ing the circle LHI in [, then the angle RHM-=anegle in the
Strong’s Problems. 267
segment RBH, and the angle THO=RHM==angle in the -
segment HLKI, But the angle in the serment RBH=
angle in the segment IDEP. Therefore the angle in the
segment IDEP=angle in the segment HLKI—angle HIQ,
or NIP. Whence the angle in the segment IDEP=NIP;
wherefore NQ touches DEPI in the point I. Conse-
quently, HLKI touches IDEP in I. Now (by Const.)
HLKI touches RBH, and passes through L. Wherefore
it is the circle required.
ase IT. When the two circles are unequal, and the cir-
cle which passes through the given point circumscribes
them.
Const. Let (Fig. 2. pl. 2.) as in Case i. the point be
L, and the circles HBC, DGE. Draw the tangent FG,
and extend it till it meet zy, produced in A. Let vy pro-
duced cut the given circles in C, B, E, D. Through L,
and C, D, the remote points in which ry cuts the given cir-
cles, describe (Prob. i.) the circle LCD. Suppose AL
produced to meet the circumference of this circle in K.
Through the points, K, L, describe (Prob. v.) a circle
touching HBC, in H. Then shall this be the circle. re-
quired.
~The points AI’, Al being joined as in case I. and the tan-
gents MO, NQ being ‘diawn, the demonstration employed
in case 11, is applicable to this.
Case I. When the touching circle circumscribes one
of the given circles, and touches the other externally.
ences of the circles in B, C, D, E. Draw FG, a tangent to
the circles in the points F, G. Let this cut the line, C
nA. Join AL. Through L, C, D, describe the circle L
CD. Suppose AL extended cuts this circle in K. Through
L, K, describe the circle LKH touching BHC in H. Join
AH, and let AH produced cut DGE in L, and HKL in
['. Draw, as in cases I and 11, MHO touching the circles
HKL, BHC, in H, and NQ touching HKVL in V.
“Now by applying the Demonstration in case I, the circle
HKI'L, as in former cases will be found to answer the con-
ditions of the problem.
268 Strong’s Problems.
Case IV. When the two circles are equal, and the
touching circle circumscribes both or neither of them.
Const. Let (Fig. 4. pl. 2.) CKL, BMN be the given
circles, and A the given point. From A as centre with ra-
dius=radius of the given circles, describe [Q. Then
through a, y, the centres of the given circles describe the
cirele [+y touching IQ in the point I. Let O be the cen-
tre of this circle. From O as centre, and (in Fig. 1.) O
I+1JA as radius describe the circle CAB, which shall be the
circle required.
Dem. For join OyB=OI+IA. Therefore the circle
ABC meets the circle MN, in the point B. But it likewise
touches this circle in the point B. For-at B draw at
right angles to OyB. Because this line is at right angles to
the diameter of ABC in the point B, it touches this circle in
the point B. For the same reason, it touches MN in B.
Therefore the circle ABC touches the circle MN in the
point B. In like manner it may be shown, that
touches KLC in the point C, and it passes (by Const.)
through A. ABC is therefore the circle required.
Now (Fig. 5. pl. 2.) by using OL—IA for O1+IA, the
through the point of contact of the two circles.
Cor. 3. Case IV, may be considered as falling under
Cases I, II, when the point A (See Fig. Cases I, U1.) be-
comes infinitely distant. But in Case III, the construction
remains the same, whatever be the magnitude of the circles.
For there the point A is confined between the centres 0!
the circles. 3
or. 4. In Case I, if the given point fall in the line AE
between the points C, D, as in r, make the rectangle Ar.
Strong’s Problems. 269
Az=AC.AD. ThenAD: Az:: Ar: Ac. But Ar > AC
therefore AD~Az, therefore the problem is possible, for
the point z always falls between C and D. Having deter-
mined the points 7, z, use them in the same manner as the
ints C, D were used, and the solution is the same as be-
ore.
Cor. 6. In Case III. when the point is between B and
D as r, then making the rectangle Ar. Az=AD AC, the
point z will fall beyond C3; and therefore the problem is
possible. Using then the points r, z for C, D, the solution
remains the same. On the contrary when the given point
is beyond C, r willbe between D, and B. Then proceed
as before.
Note.—When the circles do not cut, and one does not
fall entirely within the other, the point cannot be given
within one of the circles, but must be without the circle, or
in the circumference of one of them; and then the solu-
- tion will fall under one of the above cases ; when the circles
eut each other, the point may be given any where, except
at the points of intersection of the circles ; when one of the
circles falls wholly within the other, the point must be given
between the circumferences of the two circles; in all which
cases, the construction may be referred to one of the above
methods.
Prospiem X.
the touching circle comprehends them all, or none of them.
onst. L
Demonstration. For, join OAD. Now OAD=OA+
Ox. EL...
270 Strong’s Problems.
circumference of the same circle. But the circle DEF
likewise touches the three given circles. For at the point
F, draw G, H at right angles to OF, and it will be a tangent
to the circles DEF, F, F’ at the point F. Therefore the
circles touching the line GH at the same point FY, touch
each other at that point. In like manner it may be proved,
that the circle DEF touches the other two circles at E, D,
respectively. »
Now by using OA—AD for OA+AD, &e. and D’, E,
F’, &c. for D, , &c. this construction and demonstra-
tion are applicable to the case in which none of the given
circles are comprehended by the touching cirele.
Case hen the circles are equal, and the touching
circle circumscribes one, and touches two, or circumscribes
two and touches the other.
Const. Let (Fig. 7. pl. 2.) Ey, Dx, Fz be the given
circles of which A, B, O are the centres. From O, the
centre of the circle Fz, describe the circle GLM, with ra-
dius=Q radius of the given circles. Through the points
A, B, describe the circle ABG touching GLM (Prop. v-)
in the pointG. Let C be the centre of ABG. Then from
as centre, and CG—F0O as radius, describe the circle D
EF, which shall be the circle required,
Demonstration. For join C, O the centres of the circles
ABG,GLM. Extend co, and it will pass through the point
of contact of these circles. Join also CEA, CDB. Now
because CE=CA—AE the radius of the given circles, E
is in the circumferences of the circles Ey, DEF, and if at
the point E a line be drawn at right angles to CA, it will be
a tangent to the circles Ey, DEF at the same point bE.
Therefore these circles touch each other at the point E.
n like manner it may be proved that the circles Dx, DE
-touch each other in the point D, and that Fz, DEF touch
each other in the point F, Therefore DEF is the circle
“required.
By using CA+AK, &c. for CA—EA, &c. This demon-
stration 1s applicable to the Fig. in which the touching circle
seen two of the given circles, and touches the
® ‘
er.
Case IIT. When two of the circles are equal.
1. When all the circles or none of them are eompre-
hended.
Strong’s Problems. ‘OTF
Const. Let (Fig. 9. pi. 2.) ALA’, BMB’, CNC’, be
the given circles, of which ALA’, BMB’, are equal, and
CNC’ is less than the other two. Let G, H be the centres
of ALA’, BMB’, From G, H, as centres, with radius =ra-
dius of ALA—radius CNC, describe the circles, DD’, EE’.
Through F the centre of the cirele CNC’, describe the cir-
ele FDE, (Prob. IX.) touching DD’, EE’ in D, E, of
which circle, let O be the centre. Join CD, and it will pass
through G. Then from O as centre, with radius =OD+
CF (=radius of the circle CNC’) describe the circle ABC,
which shall be the circle required.
Demonstration. Fer join ODA. Now because ODA=
radius of the circle ABC’ (=OD+DA, or FC) of which
O is the centre, A is in the circumference of ABC. And
because ODA passes through G, and GD+DA=radius of
the circle ALA’, A is in the circumference of ALA’. Hence
LA’, ABC meet in A. And they likewise touch in A.
For if Az be drawn at right angles to ADO, A will be a
tangent to both circles in the same point A. Whence the
circles must likewise touch in that point. In like manner
itmay be proved that ABC, BMB’, ABC, CNC’, touch
each other respectively at the points B,C. ABC is there-
fore the circle required. ;
Now by using OD’— AD’ for OD+AD, and A’, B’, &e.
for A, B, &c. the demonstration is the same when none of
the given circles is comprehended.
When the touching circle comprehends both the equal
eircles, and touches the smaller one externally ; or compre-
hends the smaller circle, and touches the equal circles ex-
ternally.
Construction. Let (Fig. 10. pl. 2.) Gy, Fx, Iz, be the
given circles of which Gy=F vr. Let A, B, C be the cen-
__ Demonstration. For join ; , which will pass
through ¢ centres A, B. Now (by Const.) D is in the
272 Strong’s Problems.
circurnferences DCE, gD. Therefore since OG=OD—
GD, or OD—CI, and AG= AD—C, G is in the circum~
ferences of GIE, Gy; and if at Ga line be drawn at right an-
es to OG, it will touch both circles at the same point G.
herefore they touch each other at the point G. In like
manner Iz, GIE; Ea, GIE touch respectively in U and E.
Wherefore GIE is the circle required. Now by using
OD+GD for OD—GD, the demonstration is the same in
Fig. 11.
3. When the touching circle cireumscribes one of the
equal circles alone, or one of them together with the small-
er one.
Construction. Let (Fig. 12. pl. 2.) Eg, Hz, Ba, be the
given circles, of which A, F, C, are the centres. From
as centre with radius=radius circle Hz—radius of the cir-
cle Bz (i. ee FH—BA) describe the circle Gy. And from
C as centre with radius=radius of the circle Hz or Eg+
radius of the circle Bx describe the circle Dn. Then de-
scribe through A the centre of the circle Ba, the circle A@
D, (Prob. V.) touching (Fig. 13. pl. 2.) Dn, Gy in D, G;
of which circle let O be the centre. From O with radius
==radius of the circle AGD—radius of the circle Br de-
scribe the circle HEB, which shall be the circle required.
Demonstration. For join OHG, OCED, OBA. The
line OHE will pass through G, the point of contact of the
circles Gy, GAD. Now because GH=BA and OG—B
A= OH, the point H is in the circumferences of the cit-
cles Hz, HEB. And if a line be drawn at right angles to
OG atthe point H, the circles Hz, EHB will touch it at the
same point H. Therefore they touch each other at that
point. In like manner it may be shown that the circles Bz,
BHE, Eg, EHB touch each other respectively at the points
B, E. Therefore EHB is the circle required. "
If instead of OG—BA, OG+BA be used, this demon- —
stration is applicable to Fig. 13, in which one of the equal
circles, and the smaller one are comprehended by the
tounge at
4, hen the two equal circles are less than the other,
and when the touching circle comprehends all or none of
the given circles,
Construction. Let (Fig. 14. pl. 2.) DND’, EME. be
the two equal circles, of which 2, y, are the centres, and A
Strong’s Problems. 273
LA’ the other whose centre is G. From G as centre with
radius = radius of the circle ALA‘—radius of the circle
EME, describe the circle BB’g. Then through the points
ne describe the circle rBy touching BB’g in B, (Prob.
LI.) of which circle let O be the centre ; increasing the ra-
dius by a line = radius of the circle EME, describe the
circle ADE, which shall be the circle required.
tively at D, E.
By joining O'A’B’, and using A’B’, &c. for A, B, &c. ard
0'B’—O'A’ for OB4+AO the demonstration is the same
when the circles are none of them comprehended.
hen the touching circle comprehends both of the
equal circles; and touches the other externally, or com-
prehends the larger and touches the other externally.
Const. Let (Fig. 15. pl. 2.) ML, xl, Hy be the given
eircles of which Hy=Ia. Let A, B, C be the centres of
these circles. From the centres C, B with radius=radius
of the circle Hy+radius of the circle ML describe the cir-
eles EN, DP. Then through A describe the circle AED
touching EN, DP in E, D, of which let O be the centre.
From (Fig. 16. pl. 2.) O as centre with radius=radius.
of the circle AED—radius of the circle Hy describe the
circle LHF I, which shall be the cirele required.
Demonstration. For join OCE which as before shall
pass through the centre C. Let it cut the circle Hy in H.
Then because OH==OE—HE or the radius of the circle
LMH is in the circumference of the circle HFI. 'There-
fore if a line be drawn perpendicular to OC at the point it
will be a tangent to both circles Hy, HIF at the point H.
The circles therefore touch at the point H. In like manner
it may be shown that the circles Iz, HFI; ML, HFL
touch respectively at the points I, L. HF 'I is therefore the
circle required. By using EO+EH for OR—EH this
274 Strong’s Problems.
demonstration answers = trap 16, in which the larger cir~
cle is alone comprehe
6. When the ester ‘circle comprehends one of the
equal circles, together with the larger, or one of the equal
circles alone.
Const. Let (Fig. 1. pl. 3 ete HPN, MGQ, DER be the
given circles of which DER=MGQ. Let A, B, C, be the
centres of these circles respectively : From A with radius
==radius of the circle HPN + radius of the circle DER de-
scribe the circle IK : and from B with radius=two radii of
the circle MGQ describe the circle FL. Through C de-
scribe the circle CFI touching IK, FL in the pots I, F ;
of which circle let O be the centre. Decreasing the redius
by a line=radius of the circle DER describe the circle HE
G which shall be the circle required.
Demonstrations. For join OC. Let OC cut the izle
DER in the point E. Now: because OE=OC—CE,
. = circumference of the circle HEG. — If therefore ( Fi, ie.
3.) as in former cases, a perpendicular be erected at
a it will touch both circles at that point. Therefore the
circles DER, HEG touch each other in the point E. In
like manner it may be shown that the circles HPN, HEG;
GQM, HEG respectively oe at the points H, G. There-
fore HEG is the circle abe ds
using OC +CE for OC-_CE this demonstration 1s
applicable to Fig. 2, in which the touching circle compre-
hends one of the smaller circles and touches the other, 0%
gether with the larger circle externally.
Case If1. When all the circles are unequal,
1. When the touching circle cuthighenids all or none of
the given circles.
. Let (Fig. 3. pl. 3.) AL, HN, MF be the given
penn gd which F'M is the least. Let B, K, E, be three cen-
of the circle AL—radius of the circle FM. From K de-
scribe the circle IP, whose radius==radius of the circle NH
—radius of the circle FM. Through E describe the circle
EDI touching DG, PI in D, I. (Prob. V.) Let O be the
centre of this cirele. Frou O, with radius—radius of the
circle DEI+radius of the civelé FM, describe the cirele
AFH, which shall be the circle requ uired.
Strong’s Problems. 275
Demonstration. For join ODA which will pass through
the centre B. Now because OA=OD+ EM and BA=D
B+EM, (if M be the point in which a line joining O, E,
cuts the circle FM) A is in the circumferences of AL, AFH.
ndifat A a perpendicular be erected both circles will
touch it at the same point A. Therefore they touch each
other at that pee In like manner it may be shown that
NH, AFH, MF, AHF respectively eae at the points H,
E. Therefore AFH is the circle requir
By using OD—EM for OD+EM this demonstration is
» applicable to fig. 4, in which noue of the circles are compre-
hended by the given circle.
2. When the touching circle comprehends and touches
one externally or comprehends one and touches two exter-
nally.
‘ens Let (Fig. 5. pl. 3. ) HK, ya: LE, be the xiv-
en circles whose centres are A, B, C. Let tE be the cir-
cle which is not to be eircamstribed alone. From A with
vadius=radius of HK + radius of LE describe the circle D
1. And from B with radius of MG,+radius of LE, de-
scribe the circle FN. Through C describe the circle DCF
touching DI, FN in D, F,—of which circle let O be the
centre. Decreasing the ace? of this circle by a line=ra-
dius of the circle LE (or in Fig. 6- increasing it by the same
line) describe the circle HEC. Shick shall be the circle re-
quired.
Demonstration. For join OC and it will cutthe circle LE
in the point E. Because OE—OC—CE, E is in the cir-
cumference of HEG. Therefore if from Ea perpendicu-
lar be erected, it will touch both circles in the same point
E. Therefore they touch each other in that point. In like
manner the circles G, M, HEG ; HK, HEG, touch re-
spectively at H, G.
Now by using OC +CE for OC—CE this i: ae gee
applicable to Fig. 6. pl. 3. in which one circle is com
hended and the ather two touched externally.
Proscem XI.
lacs screquired to draw a circle through a given point, te
touch a straight line given in position and a circle given in
magnitude and position.
276 Strong’s Problems.
Case I. When the given circle is not comprehended.
Const. Let (Fig. 7 pl. 3.) AB be the given straight
line, H the given point ‘and DIKE the given circle. Iti is
line and circle. Let C be “the centre of DIKE. From C
— CF at right angles to AB, cutting the circumference
in E, D. Through F, E, H “describe the circle
F EH (Prod. £.) join DH. Suppose DH produced to cut
the circle FEH in G. Through GH describe the circle |
HGL to touch AB inL (¢ Prob. IIL. ) and this will be the
circle required.
emonstration. For joi n OL. Let OL cut the circle
LGH in K and DIKE in Ki. Now DE, DF=DH, DG
=DK, DL. If EK’ be joined, (Plaf. Eue. 6. prop. L,) B
E, DF=DL, DK’; but BE, DF==DL, DK therefore DL.
DE-=DL, DK’. Hence KD=DK’. Therefore the cir-
cles DIKE LKG meet in E. But they likewise touch in
that point. Forif they do not they must meet in some oth-
er point. t them meet inz. Join Dx and extend it to
cut LHG in y, and AB in z. Then as before, (Euclid. 6.
p. 1,) Dr, Dz =DE, DF=DL, DK=Dz, Dy. Th erefore
D
She is absurd. ‘Therefore the circles do not meet in any
int but K. Wherefore they touch in that point. But
{by Cons. GKL touches AB and passes eign H. G
is therefore the circle required.
Case If. When the given circle is circumscribed.
Const. Let (Fig. 8. pl. 3.) AB be the given line, DIEK
the given circle and H the given point. From C the cen-
tre of DIEK draw CF perpendicular to AB, cutting the
given circle in D, E of which E is not adjacent to the
t line. Through F, E, H describe the circle FEH.
Join deo Let HD extended cut whoop in G.- a
right angle, and the angles E and FDL are eq
ue FD: : LD: :K’D: $7: DE; —_ FD, DE=
Strong's Problews. 274
cles HGL, DIE meetin K. They also touch in that point.
For if they do not they must meet in some other point ; let
em meeting. Join Dx. Let Dx produced cut HGL in
yand ABiny. Then Dy, De=LD, DK. But DaE be-
ing aright angle as before, Dx, Dz =FD, DE=LD, DK.
Therefore Dr, Dy=Dz, Dz and Dy=Dz which is absurd.
Therefore the circles do not meet in z. Nowe any
point they meet in no point but K. They sharaligee: touch
in K. Wherfore LGKH is the circle required.
_ Case IIL. When the given circle cuts the given straight
Const. Let (Fig. 9. pl. 3.) AB, be the given straight
line, H the given point, and FD’E ‘the given circle. Let
the circle FD’E cut ABin L, M. Through C the oe
of the given circle draw Cl at right sane io AB in 1.
this line produced cut the circle FD’E in E, F. Through
H, I, E deseribe the circle HIF. Join EH. Let this pro-
duced cut G, HIF inG. Through H, G describe the circle
GHOD touching AB in O. And this will be the circle re-
juired.
Se casioations For join OE, let EO extended cut E
DF in D’ and GHOD in D. Then (E. 6. p. I. ) EO, E
| O, ED.
meet in D. But they also touch in this point. For if not,
let them as before meet in z. Join Ex cutting AB in y,
and GHOD. in z. Then joining Fa, the angle EzF isa
right angle. Therefore El: Ez:: Ex: EF wherefore E
I,EF=Ez, Ex. But EI, EF= EO, ED=EH, EG=ky,
_Now z being any point but the point D, they meet in
ae int but D. They therefore touch in D. Therefore
GHOD is the circle required.
Note—When the circle does not cut the line, the point
must be given without the circle and on the same side 0
the line with the circle. When the circle cuts the line the
point may be given any where except at the point of inter-
section of the line and circle. If the circle to be deseribed
is to touch the given circle externally , the point may be giv-
en any where without the circle or in the circumference,
Taggers Se pee ts. E, F, Ae: al Case III.) scan are
No.
278 Strong’s Problems.
respectively a cet poe from the points of intersection of
the given circle and line
Prosiem XII.
It is required to describe a circle to touch a straight line
given in position, and two circles given in position and
magnitude.
Case I. When the touching circle circumseribes both
the given circle and touches ‘the straight line, or ciream-
scribes neither of the given circles and touches the given
straight line.
Const. Let (Fig. 10, pl. 3.) AB be the given straight
line, GQS, MPO, the given cincles, it is required to de-
sctibe a circle to touch at B and likewise touch the circles
et [ and N be the centre of the given cir-
cles. . ” From I, with radius=radius of QG@S—radius of M
PO (if GQS> oo ‘eges the circle HRK. Draw
also the line CD parallel to AB, and distant from it by a
line=radius of the circle MPO. Then through N describe
the circle NHF touching HRK in Hand CDin F. Let L
be thé centre of this circle. From L with radius=radius
of the circle HFN +radius of the circle mie describe the
circle EGO, which will be the circle required
— Demo none Bors oin LHG which will pass through
fe _ Now because +radius of the cirele MPO and
{G=HI4-cadis otek the circle MPO, G is in the circumnfer-
ences of EGO, SGQ. And if at G a perpendicular be
atin it will touch both circles EGO, SGQ at the point
G. Therefore these circles touch each other at the point
G. In like manner it may be shown that the circles EGO,
MPO touch at the point O. But EGO likewise touches
the straight line AB. For join LFE. Let this line cut the
circle EGO in E. Now because LE=LF + radius of the
circle MPO, the point E falls in the line AB. And be-
eause AB and CD are parallel ALEA=/LFC. But 4L
FC is a right angle—(F being the point of contact of the
eircle FHN and line ED) Therefore LEA is a right an-
gle, and consequently AEB touches EGO in E, wherefore
EGO is the circle required.
By using LE +radius of MPO for LE—radius of MPO,
this demonstration is applicable to Fig. 11, when neither
the circles is comprehended.
Strong’s Problems. 279
ase Ti. When the touching circle comprehends one of
the given circles,
Const. Let (Fig. 12. pl. 3.) AB be the given straight
line and QHP, LRS the given circles, of which LRS is to
be comprehended by the touching circles. Let G, K be the
eentres of the given circles respectively. From G with ra-
dius equal to the radius of HPQ-+radius of LRS describe
the circle NMI. Draw also CD parallel to AB and distant
from it by a line==radius of the circle LRS. Through K
describe the circle KFI touching NIM in I and CD in F
of which circles let O be the centre. Increasing the radius
in E. Now the angle OFC being a OF will cut AB -
fa)
Const. Let (Fig. 13. and 14. pl. 3.) AB be the given
line, C, D the given points and X the given difference.
"rom © as centre with,radius =X describe the circle LIO.
280 Strong’s Problems.
Through D draw DE perpendicular to AB, and extend if
til EG=DE. Through D, G describe a circle IDG
touching LIO in I. The centre of this circle is in the line
Demonstration. For join FD, FC. Now the line FC
will pass through I the point of contact of the circles LIO,
IGD. Th
Cl=z and FI=FD; therefore FC—FD=a, as was re-
quired.
Prosiem XIV.
There are two points and a straight line given im position,
it is required to find a point in the straight line, such that
the sums of the lines drawn from given points to this point
shall be equal to a given line, this line never being less thar
the line joining the two points. :
Const. Let (Fig. 15. and 16. pl.3.) AB be the given line
and C, D the given points it is required to find a point in the
given line such that the lines drawn from the given pots
to that point shall together be equal to a given line. Draw
DH at right angles to AB and extend it, till HF =DH.
From C with radius=the given sum describe the circle EB
1. Through (P. IlI,) D, E describe the circle DEF touch-
ing EBI in E. Now because DF is bisected at right an-
gles by AB, the centre of DEF falls in BA. Let G be the
centre then G is the point required.
Demonstration. Yor join CG which extended will pass
through the point of contact of the circles DEF, BEI.
Join also GD. Now CE=CE+GE=CG+GD. But
CE=the given line. Therefore CG-+GD=the given line
as was required.
Sie ey ar ee ee ee
Hare’s Blowpipe. 281
CHEMISTRY, PHYSICS AND THE ARTS.
<< -
Arr. XIUI—Strictures on a publication, entitled Clark’s
Gas Blowpipe ; by Ropert Hare, M. D. Professor of
Chemistry in the medical department of the University of
Pennsylvania, and the real inventor of the cilab sat or
hydro-oxygen blowpipe, in that safe and efficient form by
which the fusion of the most refractory earths, and the vola-
tilization and combustion of Platinum was first accom-
plished.
Hos ego versiculos feci, tulit alter honores,
Sic vos non vobis nidificatis aves
Sic vos non vobis melificatis apes,
Sic vos non vobis fertis aratra Boves.
Vircin.
any author to be more discordant with these professions, 1
Pledge myself to prove in the following pages, to any reader
Whose love of justice may gain for them an attentive perusal.
{In the year 1802, in a memoir republished in the 14th
Vol. of Tilloch’s Philosophical Magazine, London, and in
the 45th Vol. of the Annales de Chimie, I had given the
fationale of the heat produced by the combustion of the
aeriform elements of water, and had devised a mode of ig-
niting them free from the danger of explosion. I had also
Stated in the same memoir that the light and heat of the
flame thus produced were so intense, that the eyes could
Searcely sustain the one, nor the most refractory substances
resist the other, and had likewise mentioned the fusion of
the pure earths and volatilization of the perfect metals as
among the results of the invention.
Subsequently in the first part of the 6th Vol. of American
Philosophical Transactions, an account of the fusion of
— and the volatilization of Platinum, was published
y me. '
282 Hare’s Blowpipe.
_ About the same time my experiments were repeated be-
fore Dr. Priestly, who gave them the credit of being quite
original.
Some years afterwards Mr. Cloud of the United States
mint, who has distinguished himself by the discovery of pal-
ladium in gold, having purified platina, so as to make its
gravity equal to 22, requested me to subject it to my blow-
pipe. In the presence of this gentleman, I was completely
successful in dissipating a portion of this pure metal. He
was so much pleased with my experiments that he made au
been employed by him, to amuse visitors at the celebrated
museum established by his father in Philadelphia.
It appears by the testimony of Professor Silliman and
others, that Dr. Hope had during his lectures at different
times within a period of eight years, employed my blowpipe
and awarded the invention of it to me. A reference to the
third edition of Murray’s chemistry, published before Dr.
Clark professes to have attended to the subject, will demon-
strate the impressions of the author of that work as the re-
sults of my experiments which I had published, are there
quoted solely on my authority.
The memoir of Professor Silliman, read before the Con-
necticut Academy of Sciences, May 1812, and republished
jately in Tilloch’s Magazine, but which Dr, Clark has not
ventured to notice, affords the most unanswerable evidence
that we had anticipated him in almost every important eX-
periment,
Mr, Reuben Haines, corresponding secretary of the Acad-
emy of Sciences, informed me in 1813, that in the laborato-
ry of Dr. Pursh in this city, a mixture of the gaseous ele-
ments of water had been inflamed while issuing in a stream
from a punctured bladder previously filled with them and
duly compressed. Any relaxation of the pressure was ©
course productive of an explosion. He on the other han
recollects that at that time I proposed this mode of supply-
* It has been erroneously alleged that he simplified the blowpipe.
Hare’s Blowpipe. 293
ing the blowpipe, interposing a small receptacle (like a wa-
ter valve) between the reservoir and the place of exit.
Cares more imperious prevented the execution of a lan
which did not promise to be better than that 1 had before
pursued successfully. . wi
Some time afterwards Sir Humphrey Davy’s discovery
of the influence of narrow metallic apertures in impeding ex-
plosions, encouraged Dr. Clark and others to hazard the use
of a mixed stream of hydrogen and oxygen gas, ignited
while flowing from a common recipient, instead of allowing
them as I had done, to mix only during their efflux. There
is another immaterial difference in the modes of operating.
in ine, hydrostatic pressure is employed to expel the gases
from a vessel into which they are introduced as generated,
or by means of a bellows. In the new mode, being pump-
_ ed into the recipient by one aperture, they flowed out at an-
other in consequence of their elasticity. ce
Dr. Clark pretends that the process he has employed is
the best ; admitting this, would it afford him any excuse for
taking so little notice of mine, or attributing the discovery
of it to others, especially while professing to give a fair his-
tory of the invention. es
If I may be allowed to compare small things with great,
when Mr. Cruikshank and Sir H. Davy improved the gal-
Vanic apparatus by introducing the trough, or modifying and
enlarging it, did they on that account forget that Volta was
the inventor of the pile ? was it not still (though no longer
a pile) called the Voltaic apparatus ?
_ Dr. Clark, like many others of the same character, find-
ing that he cannot prove himself and his associates to have
the merit of originality, endeavours to. deprive the real au-
thor of it, and accordingly ascribes it to Lavoisier. Had
this been stated in his first papers, his motives had been less
ionable. But why does he notrefer to his authorities ?
fn other cases he is very particular in making such refer-
_ We all know that with a view to recompose water, Lavoi-
at a common orifice in the open air for the purpose of pro-
ducing heat, wherefore is Dr. Clark the first and only per-
284 Hare’s Blowpupe.
son to communicate the fact to the publick ? How does it
happen that there is no account of the invention nor of any
results obtained by it either in the elementary treatise of
that great man, or in any of the cotemporary scientific
journals. On the contrary, in the Elements just alluded to,
Lavoisier treats of the heat produced by oxygen gas, and
carbon, as the highest that art could produce.*
_ Dr. Clark informs us that Dr. Thomson, now Professor
of Chemistry at Glasgow, made experiments with the mixed
gases seventeen years ago, but was induced to abandon the
undertaking, in consequence of accidents that happened to
his apparatus. Can any thing more fully display unfairness,
than that abortive experiments, made subsequently to those
in which I was successful, should be adduced as subversive
of my pretensions ?
Dr. Clark states that the Americans claim the invention
on account of experiments made by me in 1802. They
were published in 1802; my apparatus and my first ex-
periments were made in 1801.
Had Lavoisier, or any other person, availed himself of,
the heat produced by the union of the gaseous elements of
water, how could the sagacious Dr. Thomson fail in his
efforts to retrace a path so well and so recently trodden: or
if deriving any advantage from the experiments either of
the French philosopher, or those which he so imperfectly
tried, why did he conceal it when occupied during so many
years in coramunicating to the world all his chemical
knowledge in five successive editions of his system?
So far were Dr. Thomson’s experiments, or his knowledge
on these subjects, from reaching the facts discovered by me,
that he appears to have considered the authority of one
name inadequate to establish what he vainly had endeav-
oured to effect. Hence, until plagiarism had given them 4
new shape, and perhaps a false gilding, they were totally
overlooked in his compilations. He neither treated of the
pure earths as susceptible of fusion, nor of platinum,as SUS
eeptible of volatilization, until many years after I had
proved them to be so, and promulgated my observations.
_ Dr. Clark gives himself great credit for having first pointe
out the importance of employing the gases in such relative
* See plate, Fig. 10. (end of the velume.)
&
Hare’s Blowpipe. 285
yeahs as might enable them fully to saturate each other.
la me it would seem, where the highest heat is desired,
evidently absurd to employ them in any other way, because
if either gas were present in too great quantity to be acted
upon, the excess would be worse than useless. Is it not
universally an object with chemists to use ingredients in the
proportions in which they saturate each other, especially
when within a given space and time the most intense reac-
tion is to be induced? ‘The author of this professedly can-
did publication would wish to convey the idea of my con-
trivance being so inferior in power to that adopted by him,
that in a history of the invention, he does not deem it neces-
- bilats :
But while the superiority of the temperature attained by
are great and undeniable advantages in having them pro-
pelled from different reservoirs. First, a degree of security
rom explosion, which cannot be attained with one common
recipient.* 2d. The possibility of operating on a large
. Wiehe the gases are kept unmixed in separate reservoirs, and mect oo
Near the point of efflux in an orifice sufficiently large, as was the case 7
‘ Ko compound blowpipe, explosion is obvionsly impossible. If t
'g Leva
cosdt Oe Bs 37
fe eetes
286 Liare’s Blowpipe.
seale without danger. 3d. The power of varying the rela-
tive proportions of the gases so as to oxydate, or deoxydate,
as may be desirable. "This power is given by the common
blowpipe, though in a different way, and is well known to
be very useful.
To me it is ludicrous that the author should suppose ae
ceneey: - exist between the phenomena of the gas
pipe, and those of volcanoes.
In ates to put the gas blowpipe into operation, it is im-
dispensable nes there should be hydrogen and oxygen gases
confined u moderate and equable compression, so as to
flow out Geiguhey from a common aperture, at which they
may be ignited. How are these requisites to be obtained
in nature? Whence the pure hydrogen or oxygen? Has
Dr. Clark, or any other person, known them to be extri-
cated in purity? I[s not the former always carburetted or
pee and the latter never purer than in the atmos-
When obtained by art, fire is requisite to liberate
aaa but in nature the fumes of the fire would con-
hydrogen. eoahs supposing the gaseous materials gene-
rated, where is the presiding demon with the genius to de-
pone eas and skill to regulate that due admixture of them which
ts i g discovered to be necessary, an
ined ng that there could be in nature any competent substi-
tute for ;human agency in a process so intricate, by what
means, in operations so rude and extensive, is that retro-
cession of the flame to be prevented, to obviate which, in
operating with his minute apparatus, a caviltacy tube has
found indispensable. In subterranean caverns, the
gaseous elements of water might create explosions, but
could hever support the pee heat requisite to fuse ab
ifice be made smaller, and the gases mix ata greater distance from the
place of effiux, valves should be interposed in the ines, or the should
be kept under eguable e pressure, as itis possible that if — to unequal
pressure, the gas whieh i is more pressed, may pass from one re rvoir to the
y- This, ho bs acl is an over’
ae not ak to a place, : as itis so evidently accompanied by a waste
— persis ——- ardly be so-careless as not to close the
Closing the fact the usua!
aaeotion Dinesuhine the fame ssn nS in :
a et TIO “ a
«
Hare’s Blowpipe. 287
ecean of lava. ‘The only difficulty this subject presents, is
that of explaining the nature of volcanic fires, the inces-
sant existence of which is self-evident. 'The access of the
atmosphere is necessary to fire in all its ordinary forms. In
that of volcanoes, it appears to subsist without any adequate
supply of this principle. Dr. Clark, far from relieving us
‘from this difficulty, has increased it, by alleging the neces-
sity of another aeriform substance. A better solution, as
should suppose, was long ago afforded by a reference to the
combustion of metals by sulphur, in the vapour of which
some of them burn more readily than in the atmosphere.
Lately the metallic origin of earthy matter being discov-
ered, it has been supposed possible, that at some distance
from its surface the globe may consist of a great metalloidal
nucleus, which acting on water, may produce intense igni-
tion. Those who have seen the consequences of moisten-
ing quick lime, may easily conceive that tremendous effects
might ensue from reaction between water and calcium, or
any of the same family of substances. In this case hydro-
gen would be produced, but there would be no oxygen.—
Of the existence, however, of subterraneous fires in volea-
nic regions there can be no doubt, whatever may be the
theory of their origin. ‘The obvious proximity of s
3
_Tivers, and even of the sea itself, with the well known force
may be accomplished. The principle of the apparatus
used by Dr. ©. will be found the same as that of the air
288 Hare’s Blowpipe.
vault employed in England to regulate the blast of large
bellows at founderies and forges. Mr. Brook was the first
to apply it ts the regulation of a blowpipe, and published
his account of it in April 8th, 1816.
[will proceed to quote and exhibit simultaneously, the
observations and experiments of Dr. Clark, and of Profes-
sor Silliman and myself. As Tilloch’s Philosophical Mag-
azine is universally accessible, I shall refer to it for the me-
moirs of Silliman avd myself: to vol. 14 for mine, to vol.
50 for his.* For Dr. Clark’s experiments, commenced in
ee I shall quote his book on the gas blowpipe, publish-
1819.
\ Experiments on Lime.
Hare, page 304. ‘“ Lime and magnesia are extremely
difficult to fuse, not only because they are the most réfrac-
tory substances in nature, but from the difficulty of prevent-
ing them from being blown on one side by the flame: nev-
ertheless, in some instances, by exposure on carbon to the
gaseous flame, small portions of these earths were convert-
ed into black vitreous masses. Possibly the black colour
of these products of fusion, may have been caused by iron
contained in the coal ; for in the’ high temperature of the
gaseous flame, a powerful attraction is exerted between iror
and the earths.” :
are, page 306. “There is a peculiar species of native
eoal found on the banks of the Lehigh in this State, which
is extremely difficult to ignite ; which, when exposed to a
high degree of heat and a copious blast of air, burns, yield-
ing an intense heat without either smoke or flame, and
leaving little residue. By exposure to the gaseous flame
on this coal, both magnesia and lime exhibited strong symp-
toms of fusion. The former assumed a glazed and some-
what globular appearance, the latter became converted into
a brownish semivitreous mass.”
Silliman, page 109.“ A piece of lime from the Carrara
marble, was strongly ignited in a covered platinum cruci-
ble ; one angle of it was then shaped into a small cylinder.
__” These experiments were performed in December, 1811, and published
in Bruce’s Journal in 1812.
Hare’s Blowpipe. 289
degree blended with the supporting mass of lime. When
the compound flame fell upon the lime, the splendor of the
light was perfectly insupportable by the naked eye, and
when viewed through deep coloured glasses (as indeed all
these experiments ought to be) the lime was seen to be-
come rounded at the angles, and gradually to sink, till in the
course of a few seconds, only a small globular protuberance
remained, and the mass of supporting lime was also super-
lally fused at the base of the column for a space of half
an inch in diameter. The protuberance as well as the con-
tguous portion of lime was converted into a perfectly white
and glistening enamel. A magnifying glass discovered a
W minute pores, but not the slightest earthy appearance.
+his experiment was repeated several times and with uni-
form success ; may not lime therefore be added to the list
of fusible bodies ? 7
_ Clark, page 47.“ Lime in a state of perfect purity and
in the pulverulent form being placed within a platinum cru-
cible, and exposed to the flame of the gas blowpipe, its up-
per surface became covered with a limpid botyroidal glass,
resembling hyalite ; the inferior surface was quite black.
lts fusion was accompanied by a lambent purple flame.
This colour therefore may be considered as a characteristic
ue of one at least of the oxydes of calcium.”
with great difficulty exhibiting after fusion a white milky
*namel with points of intumescence that were transparent.
290 Hare’s Blowpipe.
Experiments on Magnesia.
Silliman, page 110. ‘‘ The same circumstances that reu-
dered the operating upon lime difficult, existed in a still
greater degree with respect to magnesia ; its lightness and
pulverulent form rendered it impossible to confine it for a
moment upon the charcoal; and as it has very little cohesion
itcould not be shaped by the knife as the lime had been.
After being calcined at full ignition in a covered platinum
crucible, it was kneaded with water, till it became of the
consistency of dough. It was then shaped into a rude cone
as acute as might be, but still very blunt. The cone was
three fourths of an inch long, and was supported upon a
coiled wire. The magnesia thus prepared was exposed to
the compound flame ; the escape of the water caused the
vertex of the cone to fly off repeatedly in flakes, and the top
of the frustrum that thus remained gave nearly as powerful
a reflection of light as the lime had done. From the bulk
oe
of the piece (it being now one fourth of an inch in diameter at
=
don magazine, for a memoir which he knew to be published
in both.* 55 ' A
_*I mentioned above that I had lately fused a piece of oyster en agaall
_ Ttwas exposed to the ithin an envelope of platina foil which - F
soon reduced to a fluid globule. The application of the heat beingsusper™
Hare's Blowpipe. 291
Crark. Pure Oxide of Magnesium (Magnesia.)
- Fusion per se, extremely difficult. When the earth is
made to adhere (by moisture with distilled water and sub-
sequent desiccation) and placed upon charcoal it is fusible in-
toa whitish glass ; but the parts in contact with the char-
coal acquire an imposing pseudo metallic lustre with a pur-
ple coloured flame.
Cuarx. Hydrate of Magnesia (pure foliated Magnesia
from America.)
“This substance is incomparably refractory ; with the
utmost intensity of the heat of the gas blowpipe, it is ulti-
mately reducible to a white opake enamel invested with a
thin superficies of limpid glass. Its fusion is accompanied
with a purple coloured flame.
Experiments on Corundum.
Silliman, page 112. “Corundum of the East-Indies
Was immedia ly and perfectly fused into a grey globule.”
* Corundum ° ina the s ith active ebullition.”
hute cavities caused by the escape of gas during its fusion.
This gas is probably the same which pure silica more
abundantly exhibits. A slightly coloured greenish flame
accompanics the fusion of corundum.”
Experiments on Sappar.
Silliman. Sappar or kyanite perfectly and instantly
fused with ebullition into a white enamel.” |
ed (when both substances had become cold.) This enabled me to make it
receive the greatest heat of the flame on renewing the process. The lime
then melted into a liquid, which subsiding round the globule of platina,
"used it to appear after cooling as ifset in enamel.
292 Hare's Blowpipe.
Clark, page 57. ‘ This mineral owing to its refractory
nature was used by Saussure as a supporter in experiments
with the common blowpipe. It fuses very readily into a
snow white frothy enamel.”
Experiments on Zircon.
Silliman, page 112. Zircon of Ceylon, melted with
ebullition into a white enamel.”
Clark, page 58. “ One of the most refractory substan-
ces, exposed to the heat of the gas blowpipe it becomes
first opaque and of a white colour ; and afterwards its super-
ficies undergoes a partial fusion and exhibits a white opaque
enamel resembling porcelain.*
Experiments on the Spinelle Ruby.
Silliman, page 112. “ Spinelle ruby fused immediately
into an ellipitical red globule.” . :
“ Fuses readily and undergoes a partial
combustion and volatilization with loss of colour and of
weight.. One of the solid angles of an octahedral chrystal
was entirely burned off, and volatilized in one of these ex-
periments.”
Sg oS Experiments on Silex, Alumine, Barytes.
Hare, page 304. “By exposure to the gaseous flame
either on supports of silver or of carbon, barytes, alumie,
and silex were completely fused. The products of the fu-
sion of alumine and silex were substances very similar to
each other and much resembling white enamel.” :
illiman, page 109. “ Silex, being in a fine powder it
was blown away by the current of gas, but when moistened
with water it becomes agglutinated by the heat and was then
perfectly fused into a colourless glass.”
Clark, page 59. “Pure precipitated silica (peroxide of
silicium) becomes instantly fused into an orange coloured
transparent glass. The colour may be due either to the
*. .
* Tmight say here with trath, Professor Clark in England was unable to
fuse zircon in his mode of operating with the gas blowpipe.
t
Hare’s Blowpipe. 293
charcoal serving as a support, or to the carbon of the oil
sed for making it into a paste.
On the reduction of the earths to the metallic state.
Hare, page 394. “The result of the fusion of barytes
was a substance of an oak coloured cast, which after long
exposure sometimes exhibited brilliant yellow specks. I
it be certain that barytes is an earth, these specks must have
been discoloured pariicles of the silyer support, or of the
pipes from which the flame issued.”
Silliman, page 118. “During the action of the com-
pound flame upon the alkaline earths provided they were sup-
ported by charcoal ; distinct globules often rolled and dart-
ed out from the ignited mass and burnt sometimes vividly
and with peculiarly coloured flame. From the nature of
the experiments it will not be easy to prove that these glo-
bules were the basis of the earths, and yet there is the
Strongest reason to believe it. Circumstances could scarce-
ly be devised more favorable to the simultaneous fusion and
decomposition of these bodies ; charcoal highly ignited for
@ support and an atmosphere of hydrogen also in vivid and
intense ignition. That the oxygen should be under these
circumstances detached is not surprising ; but the high de-
gree of heat and the presence of oxygen necessarily burn up
the metalloids almost as soon as produced. If means could
be devised to obviate this difficulty the blowpipe of Mr.
Hare might become an important instrument of analytical re-
Search. We can scarcely fail to attribute some of the ap-
pearances during the fusion of the leucite to the decompo-
sition of the potash it contains. This impression was muc
strengthened by exposing potash and soda to the com-
pound flame with a support of charcoal ; they were evident-
ly decomposed ; numerous distinct globules rolled out from
them and burnt with the peculiar vivid white light and flash
which these metalloids exhibit when produced and igni-
ted in the galvanic circuit. It is hoped these hints may pro-
duce a further investigation of this subject. This commu-
nication has already been extended further than was con-
templated ; but on concluding, it may be allowable to re-
mark that there is no body in all probability except a few of
Vou. H1.,...No: 2% f 6,
tere
294 Hare’s Blowpipe.
the combustible ones which is exempt from the law of fusion
by heat.’
Is there any apology for the manner in which Dr. Clark
has brought himself and his friend before the public on this
subject without the smallest acknowledgments for these.
suggestions ?
Clark's Gas Blowpipe.
In proceeding io state the revival of two of the metals of
the earths before the flame of the gas blowpipe, and of other
metals under similar circumstances, it may be proper to pre-
fix the ingenious theory of the Reverend J. Houde of St.
Peters’ College, Cambridge, respecting the cause of the de-
composition that takes place. “It is entirely owing to the
powerful attraction which hydrogen has to oxygen at such an
exalted temperature.’ he reduction or decomposition of
oxydes when exposed to the ‘ aseous flame”* is therefore
often instantaneous, and it is e ey followed by the
combustion of the minute lés thus revived, and ulti-
mately by the deposition of ihe 5 he regenerated oxyde which is
a result of that combustion. Hence.the coloured flame ;
hence also the appearance of an oxyde in a state of incom-.
parably extreme division upon the supports used whether of
metal or charcoal ; an irrefragable test of the revival of the
metal from whose ‘combustion nos newly formed oxyde has
been derived.
Peciaa on 5 Shui:
Hare, 1st part 6th Vol. American Philosophical Transae-
tions, pase 100, republished Annales de Chimie, Vol. 5
page 81.“ “About the same time I discovered strontites to
bea fusible srnetayee 5 for having obtained a portion of this
earth pure, from a specimen of the carbonat of strontites of
Argytehane Ge in iain I exposed it- on charcoa
ompound blowpipe after the manner describ-
ed in my nto above alluded to. It became fused into
— semivitreous mass in shape somewhat semi-glob-
ts The very phrase nsed by me in my original memoir.
Hare’s Blowppe. 295
Clark. Here a different process is necessary ; the revi-
val of the metal is rendered more difficult owing to the pul-
verulent state of the earth. The particles must be made to
adhere before fusion can be accomplished, and this oxyde
being much more refractory than the preceding is almost in-
fusible per se even with the aid of the vas blowpipe.”
Thus he admits that a substance is almost infusible in his
hands which has been repeatedly fused under mine.
Experiments and observations on the fusion, volatilization
and combustion of the perfect metals.
Hare, page 305. “Had I sufficient confidence in my
own judgment I should declare that gold, silver and platina
were thrown into a state of ebullition by exposure on car-
bon to the gaseous flame ; for the pieces of charcoal on
which they were exposed became washed or gilt with de-
tached particles of metal in the parts adjoining the spots
where the exposure took place. Some of the particles of
the metal thus detached exhibited symptoms of oxidation.”
Combustion of pure Gold.
Clark, page 90. “ As this experiment affords decisive
evidence of the combustion of gold, and of course its com-
bination with oxygen, and also exhibits the oxyde under a
very beautiful appearance, it may be considered as one of
the most pleasing experiments with the gas blowpipe.”
Experiments on Platinum particularly.
Hare, page 304. “ Platina was fused by exposure on car-
bon to the combustion of hydrogen gas and atmospheric air.
But the fusion of this metal was rapidly accomplished by
the gaseous flame, either when exposed to it on carbon or
upon metallic supports. me ee :
A small quantity of this metal in its native granular form
being strewed in a silver spoon and passed under the gase-
ous flame, the tract of the flame became marked by the ag-
glutination of the metal ; and when the heat was for some
ume continued on a small space, a lump of fused platina be-
fame immediately formed. About two penny weights of
296 | Have’s Blowpipe.
the native grains of platina when subject to the gaseous
flame on carbon, became quickly fused into an oblate sphe-
roid as fluid as mercury. This spheroid after being cooled
was exposed as before ; it became fluid in less than the
fourth of a minute.”
Hare, Ist part 6th Vol. Philosophical Transactions, page
99, republished Annales de Chimie, Vol. 60, page 81.
“ Being induced last winter to reinstate the apparatus by
which these experiments were performed, I was enabled to
confirm my judgment of the volatilization of platina by the
observations of Dr’s. Woodhouse and Seybert; for in the
presence of these skilful chemists I completely dissipated
some small globules of this metal of about the tenth of an
inch diameter. In fact I found platinum to be equally sus-
ceptible of rapid volatilization, whether exposed in its na-
tive granular .orm, or in that of globules obtained from tbe
orange coloured precipitate of the nitro muriatic solution by
the muriat of ammonia.”
Silliman, page 3. “ Platinum was not only melted but
volatilized with strong ebullition.”*
the gas blowpipe, is now become so easy that this metal
melts faster than lead in a common fire. It is no longer
necessary to make use of wire in exhibiting its fusion and
combustion. The cuttings which are sold by the manufac-
turers of platinum utensils are placed in a cupel, either
mounted ona stand or held in a pair of forceps. The
mouth of the jet is bent downwards so as to admit of a pet-
pendicular direction of the gaseous fame upon the metal in
the cupel. The flame is then suffered to act upon the pla-
tinum, about a quarter of an ounce of the metal being pla-
ced in the cupel at first, as soon as this begins to melt more
may be added until a cupel of the common size is neatly
full of the boiling metal ; and in this manner a mass of pla-
tinum weighing half an ounce at the least, may be obtained
in one brilliant bullet. This when rolled out so that all air
fusion and and complete dissipation of platinum, gold,
silver, nickel, cobalt, and most of the metals, and the fusion of the principal
IS
siden _of their most refracto compounds, by the use of Professor
’s compound blowpipe, have been the familiar and easy elass exper
tee] ofevery course of chemistry in Yale College for these eight years.—
Hare’s Blowpipe. 297
holes being removed the mass possesses a uniform density
will be found to have a specific gravity equal to 20,857.
During the fusion of the metal its combustion will be often
ifnot alway apparent. It will burn with scintillation and
particles of the black protoxide of platinun, if care be used,
may be caught upon a sheet of white paper while the com-
bustion is going on.”
He would here evidently wish the reader to adapt the
false impression that the facility with which platinum may
he fused is owing to “ the great improvements” made four-
‘een or fifteen years after I had devised and used them.
Will Britons tolerate such conduct in their professors ?
Silliman, last page. The experiments which have now
heen related in connexion with the original ones of Mr.
tare sufficiently show that science is not a little indebted to
that gentleman for his ingenious and beautiful invention. It
Was certainly a happy thought and the result of very philo-
sophical views of combustion, to suppose that a highly com-
bustible gaseous body by intimate mixture with oxygen gas
ust when kindled produce intense heat, and it is no doubt
to this capability of perfectly intimate mixture between
these two bodies and to their great capacity for heat, that
the effects of the compound blowpipe are in a great measure
to be ascribed.
Clark, Journal Royal Institution, page 122. ‘I consid-
er this improvement of the blowpipe, one of the most valu-
able discoveries for the sciences of chemistry and mineralo-
sy that have yet been made “and thus does he modestly
awarded according to the motto of “ suum cuique” adopted
by Dr. Clark, there would be little left for himself and his
eoadjutors.
_ Tsubjoin a few drawings of the compound blowpipe in
its different forms, and of some varieties of apparatus which
may be used for supplying it with hydrogen and oxygen
Bas.
298 Hare’s Blowpipe.
Explanation of the Plate at the end of the Volume.
Fig. 1. Original compound blowpipe, consisting of twe
common brass blowpipes soldered at their points into two
perforations in a frustum of silver or platina,* after receiv-
ing the blowpipes. These perforations converge till they
form one, the open end of which is their common orifice.
ig. 2. An enlarged representation of the frustum. It
may be of brass, the orifice being protected by platina, as
the touch-holes of guns are sometimes. The whole of the
instrument being comprised in fig. Ist, injustice has evi-
dently been done by those who have spoken of it as cum-
brous or requiring simplification.+
ig. 3. The compound blowpipe under another form.
A. is a brass ball with two arms, furnished with coupling
screws, for attaching the instrument to the tubes through
which the gases are to be supplied. B. is the pipe which
receives and emits them as mixed for ignition. It is screw-
ed into a perforation in the ball at right angles to another
perforation bored through the common axis of the ball and
rms. is pipe is made of stout brass wire, drilled so as
to admit a piece of hollow platina wire about three-fourths
of an inch long, to be inserted at one end. The platina
ings through holes gradually smaller. Hence, by having
e bore in the first instance made larger than can be want-
ed in any case, it is easy to produce pipes with orifices of
every desired diameter.
Fig. 4. Exhibits the form above mentioned on a smaller
scale, attached to the supply tubes. The latter have cocks
and conical screws, for fastening them into a table, and also
eoupling screws, for connecting the instrument with the
pipes employed to convey the gases to it, from the air hold-
ers in which they may be kept.
* The appellation, compound blowpipe, was given to this instrument by
Professor Silliman, as he uses two blowpipes meeting in a frustum.
+It has been said that Mr. Cloud simplified it ; this is of course a gross
error. he simplified any thing, it was that part of the apparatus in which
the gases are confined.
|
}
Voss
Hare’s Blowpipe. 299
gaseous materials may be pumped by a condenser, as in
the case of Mr. Brooks’ apparatus, used by Clarke. Fig.
9. A. reservoir, C. bladder holding gas, B. condenser, D
blowpipe.
In default of a better mode, two smaller tubs or kegs, or
air tight boxes inverted into larger ones, might be resorted
to. Being filled with water, this fluid might be displaced
by gas delivered from the vessels generating it, and the gas
thus collected would be propelled by the pressure of the
water through tubes connected with the compound blow-
Professor Silliman uses chests sunk in his pneumatic cis-
tern, and filled by bellows pumps,* as in my original appa-
now employ sometimes the shelves of my pneu-
matic cistern, which are made like inverted trays; so that
bell glasses filled with gas may be emptied into them by
the hand.
“Or more frequently by conveying the gases as they are evolved from
the materials, through tubes immediately into the boxes.
300 Hare’s Blowpipe.
mences. ‘The elevation of the sides of the gasometers
above the horizontal partition or diaphragm, constitutes an
external cavity, in which water may be poured so as to load
them sufficiently. . A. B. C. D. cistern, E. F. partition di-
viding it, H. gasometer, or self-regulating reservoir of hy-
drogen, G. gasometer for oxygen, I. I. two pipes closed at
top and inserted air tight into the gasometer, L. M. two
smaller pipes in the axis of those last mentioned, open at
top, passing water tight through the bottom of the cistern
and communicating with the blowpipe n.o. m. m. exten-
sion of the pipe M. by means of which, oxygen may be in-
troduced from the iron bottle f.* P.P. rods which pass
through holes in a sort of gallows, so as to regulate the
movements of the gasometers, and stop them by the bands
and screws R. R. at any height desired ; Q. Q. cocks, for
draining the pipes L. and M. of any moisture which may
condense in them.
This method of affording a regulated production and
store of hydrogen gas, is somewhat analogous to that of Gay
issac ; but has this superiority; that the pressure is more
equable, need not be greater than useful, and may be
lessened at pleasure, so as not to have the tendency to leak-
-age through the cocks, or any pores in the apparatus use-
lessly increased. Hydrogen is peculiarly subtile, and will
escape when other gases will not. om
Fig. 6, and Fig. 7,} represent self-regulating reservour's
of hydrogen, more closely upon the principle of Gay Lus-
sac. I had availed myself of this principle to regulate the
production of fixed air from carbonat of lime before I heard
of its adoption by that eminent chemist. A (Fig. 8? Ed.)
a partition dividing the cask into two apartments, the lower
the largest. B B a false bottom, full of holes, raised above
an inch from the real bottom of the cask. Ca copper oF
leaden pipe, inserted at its upper end into the partition, and
extending downwards a little heyond the false bottom. . B
* The iron bottles used in commerce to confine quicksilver answer admi-
rably well. The narrow end of a gun barrel usually fits them, and il oe
large enough, asection may be made near the breech where the barre
ens
It may be luted into the bottle with clay or lime and white of egs, apa
longer pipe is then easily luted to the breech, where it cannot be injure
by the fire.
i Fig. 7 and 8 ?—Editor.
oe ee
eee ee ee
Hare’s Blowpipe. 301.
D, a conical brass screw plug, inserted into a hole in the
cask, to be removed or reinserted, as may be convenient.
E a plug of wood for closing the pipe B. F a cock for
regulating the escape of gas. The plug D being removed,
and zine in pieces introduced by the hole so as to cover the
false bottom, diluted acid is to be poured into the cask, till
the lower apartment becomes full. The cock F being
closed, the hydrogen produced by the chemical action soon
expels so much of the acid from the lower compartment of
the cask, as to depress it below the zinc, when the action
stops, till the expenditure of the gas allows the acid again to
reach the metal. The plug E is of use to prevent the acid
from pressing on the gas below, when pressure is not want-
ed. Fig. 7 may be understood by its analogy with Fig 6,
(Fig. 8? Ed.) being merely another mode of putting the
same principle into operation. Casks of the form of Fig.
6, (Fig. 8? Ed.) may be used as oxygen gas holders. The
lower apartment is to be filled with water, the cock closed,
and the plugs E, D put into their places so as to be quite
tight. The pipe G only is to be open, and through this, the
end of a tube is to be introduced, proceeding from a vessel
in which oxygen may be generated. The gas displaces the
water, which, as it flows out is to be caught and poured in-
to the upper apartment of the cask. When the lower apart-
ment becomes full Gis to be closed. It is then only neces-
sary to remove the plug E, in ordei to allow the water to
press upon the gas, and propel it, when requisite, through a
tube to the blowpipe. ios
Fig. 11 represents a contrivance, by which any vessel,
with but one orifice, as a bottle, a demijohn, or carboy,
may be made to act as an air holder; so that a number
may be filled with oxygen gas over a preumatic cistern, may
be laid by, and then used as wanted. The cylinder A is to
be inserted in the place of the cork or stopple. This cylin-
der has two perforations nearly collateral, one not more
than one quarter of the diameter of the other. The smaller
one, B, communicates with a small tube, furnished with a
302 Chemical examination of the Hop.
course run into the bottle, until the gas within is so much
condensed, as to resist the pressure of a column of it suffi-
ciently high to reach the orifice of the inserted vessel.
When this takes place, no more will descend, until by
opening the cock, a portion of gas escapes: but as long as
it is escaping, a proportionable quantity of water will come
down, so as to keep the gas under an equable pressure, and
of course an even flow towards the blowpipe.
Fig. 10, represents Lavoisier’s apparatus for the recom-
position of water, which Dr. Clark so uncandidly insinuates
as suggesting the contrivance of the hydro oxygen blow-
pipe. Ata, is a tube, by which, to exhaust the vessel A of
air. Atb, is another tube for supplying oxygen. Atce,
a third tube for supplying hydrogen, to be ignited by a
spark from the knob of the bent wire below it.
Arr. XIV.—An Experimental Inquiry into the chemical
properties and economical and medicinal virtues of the
upulus, or Common Hop, by Ansuu W. Ives,
— M.D. of New-York,
Tue hop is a hardy perennial plant, which grows spon-
arts of
+
* That the Humulus is a native of America, bas been confirmed by the
licheaux, Nuttall, Eaton, Torrey, and others.
+ A very aceurate drawing and minnte dissection of the male and female
hee may be found in “ Lamarch’s Encyclopedia,” part 22d, plate
t Writers have generally used the term hop-plant to distinguish the whole
vegetable, and the hop to designate that part of it used in brewing. __
Chemical examination of the Hop. 303
of medicine, that consideration would excite, iy pas
but little solicitude, while there existed a hope o :
an improvement in domestic economy, which uld be
ota interesting to a great portion of the civilized
world.
water had passed over into areceiver. ‘The fluid that eee
over indicated slightly the peculiar aromatic flavour of ~
P; it was perfectly transparent, very little discoloure ;
and exhibited no appearance of a volatile oil. HL.
remaining in the retort was aromatic and bitter. hen
304 Chemical examination of the Hop.
filtered and evaporated, it yielded ten grains of a pale yel-
low extract, intensely bitter, and possessing ia a high de-
gree the peculiar aromatic taste of the hop.
. Exp. 2.—Two ounces of the best merchantable hops
were distilled in a retort, with six ounces of water, till half
of the fluid had passed over into a receiver of water.
water in the receiver was slightly impregnated with the
odour of the hop, but there was no appearances of volatile
oil.
xp. 3.—Two drachms of lupulin were boiled m a re-
tort with three ounces of alcohol. The alcohol came over
strongly impregnated with the aroma of the lupulin ; but
there was no visible indication of an essential oil. The re-
maining alcohol had assumed a brilliant yellow colour, and
a pleasant but intensely bitter taste; when filtered and
evaporated, it yielded one drachm of extract of the consis-
tance of soft wax.
Exp. 4.—A saturated decoction of the lupulin was pre-
pared with pure water. It was opaque and of a pale yel-
‘low colour. By adding to a portion of it a solution of the
sulphate of iron, the colour was changed to a deep purple,
approaching to black ; a solution of animal gelatine, threw
a copious ash-coloured precipitate, which left the su-
pernatant liquor transparent and clear. This liquor was
now decanted ; by adding to it a solution of iron, it was
changed to a pale blue ; the acetate and subacetate of Jead,
caused a copious curdy yellow precipitate; the nitrate of
silver, a greenish flocculent precipitate; muriate of tin, w
first added, produced no change, but after standing a short
time, a brown precipitate; a solution of sulpbate of alu-
mine caused no immediate change, but by boiling with the
decoction, it separated a dense precipitate. Silicated pot-
ash, alcohol, and vegetable blue, induced no change.
4p. 5.—Two drachms of lupulin in four ounces of wa-
ter, were digested six hours in a sand bath. The infusion
yielded by evaporation six grains of aromatic and bitter
* These experiments, with some variation, were frequently repeated,
with the view to detect, if practicable, the volatile oil which is so frequent-
ly mentioned by anthors as essential to the flavour of beer. e result was
ormly the same. The peculiar aroma of the hop was always obvious
os seeeii and taste, but J was never able to separate it in the form of 2°
Chemieal examination of the Hop. 305
extract. ‘Two ounces of proof spirit were added to the
same lupulin, and subjected to a moderate heat twelve
hours ; when filtered and evaporated, there remained six
grains of a resinous extract. "The same lupulia was digest-
ed thirty minutes in boiling aleohol, from which was ob-
tained by evaporation sixty-two grains of extract. The
extract obtained by the second process was soluble in pure
alcohol, and when water was added to the solution, it be-
came turbid and mi
_ Exp. 6.—The lupulin used in the last experiment, was
boiled in strong caustic ammonia. When filtered and su-
persaturated with distilled vinegar, a copious precipitate
ensued, which was insoluble in alcohol, and possessed the
sensible properties of an impure wax. ‘The three last ex-
periments show pretty satisfactorily, that the most impor-
fant proximate principles of the lupulin are resin, wax,
tannin, gallic acid, a bitter principle, and an extractive mat-
ier. The following experiments were instituted for ‘the
purpose of ascertaining more accurately their respective
proportions, as well as the aggregate amount of soluble
Matter in a given quantity of lupulin.
Exp. 7th—Two drachms of lupulin were infused five
hours in boiling water. To the filtrated infusion, were ad-
ded at intervals, five grains of animal gelatin in solution;
When it ceased to produce any precipitate, and the super
natant liquor became transparent and clear. The sediment,
when dry, weighed ten grains. An ounce of alcohol was
added to the filtered solution, but it caused no change ; by
evaporation, it yielded fifteen grains of a very bitter extract.
The same lupulin was digested again in boiling water—an-
‘mal gelatin added to the filtered solution, induced no pre-
Cipitate 3 by evaporation, an additional quantity of six
Stains of the watery extract was obtained.
. 8th.—The extract obtained in the last experiment,
Was put into pure alcohol, and frequently agitated. After
twenty-four hours it was filtered ; ten grains had been re-
dissolved by the alcohol, and an insoluble mass, weighing
eleven grains, was left upon the filter. .
Lax) h.—The same lupulin which was used in the
seventh experiment, was now digested in acohol. The m-
fusion was highly bitter, and of a fine yellow colour ; it gave
by evaporation twenty-four grains of resin. By digesting
*
306 Chemical examination of the Hop.
in a second portion of alcohol, twelve grains more of resin
were obtained, less bitter, but otherwise like the last.
Exp. 10th.—The lupulin which was the subject of the
last experiment, after having been thus boiled in water, and
digested in aleohol, was put into a small retort, and boiled
in two ounces of ether. While boiling, it was filtered into
a vessel containing cold water, by which means twelve
grains of wax were obtained.* :
Exp. 11th.—Half an ounce of lupulin was boiled suc-
cessively in water, alcohol and ether. On weighing the in-
soluble residuum, it was found that five eighths of the whole
had been taken up by the solvents.
From the foregoing experiments, all of which were, with
some variation, frequently repeated, I infer, that the lupu-
lin contains a very subtle aroma, which is yielded to water
and to alcohol, and which is rapidly dissipated by a high
heat; that no essential oil can be detected by distillation in
any portion of the hop; that the lupulin contains an ex-
tractive matter, which is soluble only in water ; that it con-
tains tannin, gallic acid, and a bitter principle, which are
soluble in water, and in alcohol; that it contains resin,
which is dissolved by alcohol and by ether, and wax, which
is soluble only in alkalies and in boiling ether; that it con-
tains neither mucilage, gum, nor gum-resin ; that the aro-
sooner by both when they are hot than when they are cold;
exist in very nearly the following proportions :—~In tv
chms (or one hundred and twenty grains) of lupulin,
ere is,
that of
Chemical examination of the Hop. 307
See re ae REDE ee eee
ewrmiractive metic, 5 isc es 2st os he AO
mbiited DRinciple, |i: 5, aw +, eid 4) oc wri we RES
Me Bs ies ie ta og 4 sk 2 gua ag Sg
Resin, . . ai oikcshi pe
_A woody fibrous substance, or Lignin, .... 46
‘ep. 12.—Two drachms of the leaves,* from which all
the lupulin had been separated, were digested twelve hours
in six ounces of boiling water. The infusion was bitter,
and exceedingly unpleasant to the taste ; it possessed none
of the aromatic flavour and peculiar bitter of the lupulin.
When filtered and evaporated, it yielded five grains of nau-
seous extract. ‘The same leaves were again digested in six
ounces of proof spirit: after twelve hours, the infusion was
filtrated, and, by evaporation, yielded five grains of extract,
similar to the last. ‘The same leaves were digested twenty-
four hours in alcohol ; the infusions manifested none of the
grain ,
ter obtained from the leaves was sufficiently characteristic of
the hop to designate that it was obtained from that article.}
From this, and other similar experiments, leading to the
Same results, I think it is conclusively proved, that the vir-
tue of the hop resides exclusively in the lupulin; that the
leaves contain a nauseous extractive matter, which is im-
parted to water and to alcohol, and which, instead of adding
to the bitter and aromatic fiavor of the lupulin, partially
neutralizes or destroys it.
e obvious inference from these results was, that the
lupulin was the only part of the hop essential to economi-
cal purposes; an inference so little anticipated, that it be-
Came an important subject of enquiry, whether that part of
the plant was duly estimated by practical brewers—wheth-
er it had been regarded by authors as preferable to the
leaves, and if so, what impediment or what consideration
Prevented its being separated from the chaff.
*It will be understood that by the leaves are meant the calices which form.
308 Chemical examination of the Hop.
On making enquiry of a number of brewers in this city,
it was ascertained that there was about one in three whe
considered this powder useful, in common with other parts of
the plant. It was known to all that hops were used princi-
pally for their antiseptic powers, or to preserve the beer
rom acetous fermentation; but neither practical brewers,
nor scientific writers on brewing, appear to have noticed this
substance particularly. By some of the former, it is re-
garded as useless. Whenat one brewery I asked for some
of the yellow powder that was found at the bottom of the
bags; I was told that I could find but little there, as
but a few days ago they had swept half a bushel of it from
the store.
I was now resolved to ascertain, if possible, the propor-
tion of lupulin in the merchantable hop, and also whether it
could be completely and readily separated from the leaves.
Accordingly, six pounds of pressed hops were taken from the
centre of a bag, containing some hundred pounds, and ex-
posed to heat till perfectly dry. They were then put into a
light bag and by threshing, rubbing and sifting, fourteen
ounces of the pure powder was separated ina short time and
with very little labour.
hough the quantity thus obtained was surprisingly great,
there was obviously a considerable proportion remaining
which could not easily be separated from the chaff.
therefore the hops were gathered when the lupulin existed
in the greatest abundance, and, instead of being pressed and
packed, were exposed to the sun till perfectly dry, there 1s
little doubt but six pounds would yield a pound of the pow-
der in question.*
_ The foregoing experiments were not completed till late
in the spring, when the best season for brewing was passe¢s
but with the advice, and by the direction of Robert Barnes,
Esq. (an experienced and scientific brewer, zealous for the
improvement of his art) two barrels of beer were made 10
which nine ounces of the lupulin were substituted for five
pounds (the ordinary quantity) of hops. The result con-
firmed the most sanguine expectation. Though the quant
* Nothing conjectural would here have been introduced, but with a view
to show, as accurately as possible, the proportion of lupulin, that the req
oa agreed may be known in case it should be substituted for the leaves ©
Ops ng
Chemical examination of the Hop. 309
ty of lupulin was less than what (according to the foregoing
statement) usually enters into the same quantity of wort,
and though the weather during the month of June was un-
usually warm and therefore unfavourable to its preservation,
still the beer, which is now five weeks old, is very fine. I
is pleasantly aromatic and bitter, and in a perfect state of
preservation.
O ascertain the preservative property of the lupulin by a
more direct experiment, equal quantities of the beer were
put into separate vials and exposed, unstopped to the sun.
Ho the beer in one vial was added a scruple of lupulin.
The beer to which none was added, became mouldy and
sour in ten days, the other was unchanged at the expiration
of fifteen days.
Having, as 1 conceive, demonstrated that the lupulin,
alone, contains the bitter principle and the aromatic flavour
of the hop, which are essential to the excellence and preserv-
ation of malt liquor, and having shown also the feasibility of
separating it from the leaves to which it is attached ; I sha
proceed to enumerate some of the most obvious benefits
which would result from these facts, should they be found
applicable to practical use.
1. It would diminish the expenses of transportation.—In
this the saving would be enormous. The hops which are
now brought to this city are cultivated in the eastern states,
and in the western parts of this state, and the expense of
transportation is from one to two cents a pound. This is
on account of their bulk, rather than their weight. Were
fore and after threshing. Might it not also, for the same
reason, become a profitable article of export!
to the brewer.
Vou. I1.....No. 2. 40
310 Chemical examination of the Hop.
3. One object in pressing the hop into bags is, to preserve
it from the injury of the air; along exposure to which, it is
said partially destroys its virtue. Whatever may be the
cause, it is well known that the value of hops is diminished
y age. is could not result to the lupulin any more than
to our imported teas, were it packed in casks which would
secure it perfectly from the air.
e brewer would evade an enormous loss, which he
now sustains in the wort absorbed by the hops. Dr. Shan-
now asa barrel of wort contains not less than three bush-
els of malt, it follows, that the quantity of malt thus annual-
ly lost by absorption, is one hundred and eighty seven thou-
sand five hundred bushels—the price of which may be fatr-
ly estimated at as many dollars. :
5. It will lessen the temptation to the fraudulent practice
which now prevails, of adulterating beer with other vegeta-
ble bitters. Notwithstanding the prohibitions of parliament
there is no article which is the subject of such varied and
extensive fraud in England at the present day as that of
beer. Asa substitute for the hop,} the coculus indicus,
quassia and wormwood have all in turn been used ; but @
of them are so far inferior, both in their flavour and in thelr
antiseptic or preservative properties, that the use of all veg-
etables in the manufacturing of beer, excepting malt ant
hops, is by law forbidden. By the improvement which 1s
now proposed, so great would be the diminution im the
price of the hop, from its being made an article of easy and
* Vide, Dr. Shannon's Treatise on Brewing.
t Edinburgh Encyclopedia, Vol. 2.
¢ Accum’s Treatise on the adulteration of food. Also, Edinburgh Re-
: 5.
view, No. 6
‘
Chemical examination of the Hop. 31]
use of opium and tobacco. Soon after hops were intro-
duced into use in brewing in England, the citizens of Lon-
don petitioned parliament to forbid their use in the king-
ey were a nuisance, “ and spoiled the taste of
their drink.” The leaves then are not only useless, but
prejudicial to the flavour of beer. ©
the virtues of this substance as a medicine, I shall at —
geaont be very brief, as it will probably be made a subject
‘or future consideration. It has already been observed that
ed in dyspepsia and scrofula. In this country it has been
most valued for its narcotic powers, and used in cases when
opium was inadmissible. ‘The most common preparation is
a saturated tincture of the leaves. To this there are two
important objections. 1. To give enough of the tincture
of the leaves to induce sleep, the quantity of alcohol is ne-
cessarily so great as sometimes to do injury to the patient.
2. When given in large doses, it frequently produces nau-
sea and sometimes vomiting. The first of these objections
requires no. proof, the second is confirmed by my own ob-
servation and by the experiments of Dr. Bryorley in his in-
augural dissertation on the hop. This last effect is proba-
bly owing to the extractive matter in the leaves, for I have
never seen it produced by the lupulin. I have prescribed
the powder in substance, the infusion, decoction, alcoholic
tincture and the extract. As its aromatic and bitter proper-
ties are imparted to water, the infusion is an eligible prepa~
ration as a tonic and stomachic ; but if given with a desire
to produce sleep, the tincture is the best preparation. As
it has been demonstrated, both by positive and negative tes-
timony that the narcotic principle exists in the reszn only,
the tincture should always be made with alcohol and not
a
312 Hare’s Eudiometers, &c.
with proof spirit. Itis more difficult and expensive to pre-
pare the extract than the tincture, and the latter in most in-
stances is the most eligible preparation.
Its virtues are aromatic, tonic and narcotic; and it is, F
believe the only article in which these properties are com
bined. Our country abounds with vegetable bitters and
tonics, many of which are more powerful than the hop, but
there is perhaps none which can so properly be denomina-
ted a stomachic. That family of symptomatic diseases
which are the consequence of exhausted excitability, or
more directly of an enfeebled and deranged state of the
stomach and bowels, are certainly much relieved by this
medicine. It frequently induces sleep and quiets great
nervous irritation, without causing costiveness or, impairing
like opium the tone of the stomach, and thereby increasing
the primary disease, As an anodyne it will be found inefli-
cient compared with opium. The saturated alccholic tine-
ture, in doses of from forty to eighty drops, will induce sleep
with as much certainty as opium in cases of long watching
from nervous irritability ; but the same cannot be said of its
efficacy in relieving pain. This substance then, is not com-
mended as a medicine which ought to supersede the use of
others of acknowledged virtue, but as a useful auxiliary,
which undoubtedly possesses properties in some respect
eculiar to itself, and as the part of the hop altogether pre-
‘able to any other, or to the whole as it is ordinarily used
i tincture.) tok
ait
ee
ed
Arr. XV. Account of new Eudiometers, &c. invented by
Roserr Hare, M. D. Professor of Chemistry, fe.
the Medical department of the University of Pennsylva-
Gx 4 a .
Among the operations of chemistry, none probably are
more difficult than those called Eudiometrical, in which ae-
riform substances are analyzed. +
Elastic fluids are so liable to. contract or expand with the
slightest change of temperature or pressure, that it is requi- -
site to have the surface of the portion under admeasuremen!
exactly in the same level with that of the water or mereury
=
Hare’s Eudiometers, &e. — 313
employed to confine it, and the heat of the hand may ren-
der the result inaccurate. There is no simple mode of
eausing the surface of the gas in a measure glass to form a
plane corresponding with the brim of the measure glass
containing it. 'The transfer of small portions of gas without
loss, especially frem large bells into small tubes is very diffi-
eult. Hence there is trouble, delay and waste.
I shall proceed to describe some instruments which I have
lately invented, and which appear to be free from the dis-
advantages above described. They are all essentially de-
pendent on one principle for their superiority.*
_ A recurved glass tube is furnished with a sliding wire of
iron or copper, graduated into two hundred parts. The
process of making wire by drawing it through a hole, ren-
ders its circumferences of necessity every where equal and
homologous. Consequently equal lengths will contain
squal bulks.
_'The wire slides through a cork soaked in bees-wax and
oil, and compressed by a screw, so that neither air nor water
can pass by it.
_ The length of the longer leg is fifteen inches, that of the
shorter one six inches. The bore of the tube is from ,4 to
#5 an inch in diameter, but converges towards the termina-
tion of the shorter leg to an orifice about large enough to ad-
mit a brass pin. Over this a screw is sometimes affixed, so
as to close it when necessary.
The tube being filled with water or mercury, and the
wire pushed into it as far as it can go, on drawing this out
again any desired distance, an equivalent bulk of air must
enter the capillary orifice if open. By forcing the rod back
in into the tube, the air must be proportionably excluded.
s the movements of the sliding wire are accompanied
by a corresponding ingress or egress of air, and to know
iow many divisions of the former have been pushed into
the tube, or withdrawn from it, is the same as to know how
much air has been drawn in or expelled.
If, instead of allowing the orifice to be in the open air, it
be introduced within a bell glass, holding gas over the pneu-
matic apparatus, on pulling out the wire, there will be a
corresponding entrance of gas into the instrument; and it
must be evident that if the point of the gas measures be
* See the plate at the end of the volume.
~
314 Hare’s Eudiometers, &¢.
transferred to the interior of any other recipient, the gas
which had entered, or any part of it, may be made to go in-
to any such recipient by reversing the motion of the wire.
As the hands are, during this operation, remote from the
part of the tube which contains the aeriform matter, no ex-
pansion can arise from this source, and the operation is so
much expedited, that there is much less chance of variation
from any other cause. By taking care to have the surface
of the gas in the bell glasses below that of the fluid in the
cistern, the density of the former will be somewhat too
great, but on bringing the orifice of the gas measurer on a
level, with the surface of the fluid in the cistern, the gas, no
longer subject to any extra pressure, will assurne its proper
volume, the excess being seen to escape in bubbles. Should
the tube in lieu of water, be filled with any solution, calcu-
lated to absorb any gas, of which the proportion, in an
mixture, is to be ascertained, and if the quantity of absorp-
tion which can take place while the wire is drawing out, 15
deemed unworthy of attention, we have only to introduce
the shorter leg of the tube into the containing vessel, as
above described, and draw out the wire to two hundred on
its scale, then depressing the point below the surface of the
fluid in the pneumatic cistern in the usual time with due ag-
itation, all the gas which the fluid can take up, will disap-
pear. The quantity will be represented by the number of
Hare’s Eudiometers, &c. 315
be kept open, and under water, so as to permit the latter to
take place of that portion of the gas which disappears.—
Whatever remains unabsorbed, is expelled from the glass
spheroid, as in the case of the tube when used alone; and
the divisions on the rod remaining without, will shew how
much the fluid has taken up.
ready explained. When the residuum is too great to be ex-
pelled by returning the whole of the rod into the tube, by
depressing the orifice of the spheroid just under the surface
of water, the wire may be again gently retracted, water
taking its place; and the movement may thus be alter-
nated, till the whole of the remaining gas is excluded.
In order to apply this principle to Volta’s process of as-
eertaining by explosion the quantity of hydrogen or oxy-
gen gas present, in a mixture, the gas measurer is made as
much stronger, as eudiometers are usually, when intended
to be so used. It isin like manner drilled so as to receive
Wires for passing the electric spark. ‘The instrument being
charged with the gases successively in any required propor-
tion, closed by the screw, and an explosion accomplished ; to
ll any consequent vacuity, the orifice is to be opened just be-
low the surface of water or mercury. The quantity destroy-
ed by the combustion is then ascertained by the sliding wire.
This experiment is more accurately performed by means
of mercury than water. From this fluid, concussion, or
even the partial vacuum produced by the gaseous matter,
May extricate air, and thus vitiate results. There ought
always to be a considerable excess of gas not liable to be
acted on. The activity of the inflammation is lessened,
and the unconsumed air breaks the shock. .
T have found the galvanic ignition produced by a small
calorimotor preferable to the electric spark. Suppose a
Piece of iron wire to be filed down in the middle for about
one half of an inch to about one third of the original diam-
316 Hare’s Eudiometers and Calorimotor.
eter. ‘The whole is cemented into the perforation drilled
in the tube, so as that the smallest part may extend across
the bore. The wire should then be cut off at about one
third of an inch from the tube, so as to stand out from it
on each side about that distance. If these protruding wires.
be severally placed in the forceps of a calorimotor and the
plates subjected to an acid, the small part of the wire within
the tube is vividly ignited, and any gas in contact with it
must explode. The interior wire is best made of platina,
and may in that case be screwed into two larger pieces of
a baser metal ; or a baser metal may be fastened on it, by
drawing through a wire plate, and the platina duly denuded
by a file where it crosses the bore.
The calorimotor which I have used for this purpose, con-
sists of eleven plates of copper, and a like number of zinc,
placed alternately within one-fourth of an inch of each
other ; those of the same kind of metal being all associated
by means of a metallic stratum of tin cast over them. The
two heterogeneous galvanic surfaces thus formed, have each
soldered to them a wire in a vertical position, and slit, so
as to present a fork or snake’s mouth. The wires are just
so far apart as to admit the gas measurer between them, so
that the wires of the latter may easily be pressed into the
vessel, until it nearly reaches the plates. A plunger, con-
sisting of a water tight box, or solid block of wood, is then
This apparatus may be constructed in the circular form,
by so placing two concentric coils, or several concentric
Hare’s Eudiometers, &c. 317
round or bottle. The acid solution must occupy the lower
f of the vessel, unless when the plunger raises it.
T am under the impression that there isno form in which
a pair of galvanic surfaces can be made so powerful in pro-
portion to their extent, as in that above mentioned. ‘The
zinc-is every where opposed by two copper surfaces by
having this metal only a small fraction in excess.
; Explanation of the Plate. .
(See the end of the volume.)
Fig. 1. Sliding rod eudiometer or gas measure, sur-
mounted by its spheroidal recipient. rr, sliding rod gradu-
ated into twenty divisions, each subdivided into ten, so as
to make two hundred parts. Atm f, are male and female
screws, (forming: what mechanics call a stuffing box,) by
means of which a cork soaked in beeswax and oil is com-
pressed about the rod. Atn, is the neck of the recipien
ground to fit the recurved tube which enters it. At » is
a screw, by which to close the capillary orifice of the recip-
tent
_ Fig. 2. Eudiometer upon the same principle, but made
stouter, in order to resist the explosion of inflammable mix-
tures. W W, wire to be ignited. es
__ Fig. 3. Displays a construction of the sliding rod, b
which, when desirable, greater accuracy may be attained in
€ measurement of gas. A smaller rod or wire is made to
slide within the larger. Whatever may be the ratio (in
_ bulk) of the rods to each other, the lesser may be graduated
to give thousanths, by ascertaining how far it must be mov-
ed to produce the effect of a movement of one division on
the larger rod, and dividing the observed distance mto ten
parts, |
_ Fig. 4. Represents an apparatus adapted to explode an
inflammable mixture, as mentioned in the preceding article,
and so contrived to be a substitute for the well known ap-
paratus in which an electrophorus is employed to ignite hy-
rogen gas. Moisture in the air suspends the action of that
apparatus, but does not interfere with the one here repre~
_ Sented.
Vou. IL.....No. 2 Ai
&
ols Hare’s Eudiometers, &.
separates the air holder G, from a calorimotor situated un-
der C, anda plunger P, contained in the other part of it.
W, wires severally soldered to the different galvanic sur-
faces, and forked or slit at their ends, so as to embrace the
wire of an eudiometer for the explosion of inflammable
mixtures, as mentioned in the preceding article. At ff, are
forceps (severally soldered in the same way) for holding a
wire to be ignited by the galvanic influence.
These wires and the plates with which they are connect-
ed may be seen at fig. 5, where there is an enlarged drawing
of the calorimotor and its wires.
It is supposed to be situated below the edge of the cis-
tern, which is supplied with diluted acid reaching within a
little distance of the plates. A
ce, a cock soldered to a pipe communicating with the in-
side of the gasometer. hh. a gallows and guide wire, for
regulating the rise of the gasometer.
he construction of this will be better comprehended
from fig. 6, where t represents the tray for holding the zinc,
by means of which hydrogen is to be evolved. The tray 1s
supported on the pipe in the axis of the vessel by a sliding
band and screw, so that it may be raised or depressed at
pleasure. When this tray is covered with granulated zinc,
and the lower vessel is filled with acid so as to cover It,
hydrogen must be generated until it occupies so much of
the air holder, as to depress the acid from off the zinc.
Supposing the apparatus thus prepared, on depressing the
plunger at P, fig. 4, the acid in the cistern A A, will be
forced up among the galvanic surfaces, and cause the wire
at ff to be ignited. Turning the cock while the wire 18
red hot the hydrogen will be emitted and inflamed.
A A, acistern divided by a water tight partition, which
d
Analysis of the New-Jersey Ores of Zine. 319
Art. XVI. Analysis of two Zine Ores from the United
_ States of America ; by M. P. Berruier, Engineer in
the royal Corps of Mines, (translated by the Editor from
the Annales des Mines 3d Livraison Ann. 1819.*)
TueEse two minerals occur together and are very abun-
dant. They compose the ‘principal part of a very thick
and extensive metalliferous bed contained in a grauwacke
formation in New-Jersey. ey occur principally in
Franklin, Sparta, Stirling, Rutgers, in the county of Sus-
sex : they are accompanied by white laminated carbonate
of lime, quartz, a peculiar greenish yellow garnet, and some
other substances. One of these minerals (the zine ores)
is orange red, the other is of a metallic black. We will
examine them successively. .
1. The Manganesian Ord of Zinc,
It is to Bruce that we owe the knowledge of the red
mineral.| In 1814, he published a description and analy-
sis of it in the American Journal, (vol. 1, page 96:) he
found it composed o
Oxid of zinc, - - - - - = 0.92
Oxid of manganese and iron, - 0.08 _
It was named from its composition manganesian oxid of
zinc. I have subjected this ore to many trials, and have
repeated the analysis in many forms; like Bruce, I have
found only oxid of zine and oxid of manganese, but in pro-
portions a little different from his, as will appear below.
The manganesian oxid of zinc is of an orange red, ap-
proaching blood red. It is in amorphous grains irregularly
disseminated in the mass of the mineral: the fracture is
ae
* The importance of these two ores, and respect to the memory of the
late Dr. Bruce, who first made these ores known, have induced me to give
the memoir entire.—-Editor.
t Mr. Maclure had already, in 1811, transmitted the New-Jersey mineral
to M. Vauquelin, who extracted faom it
rotoxid of iron, - - - - - - 045
Oxid of zinc, about - - - - - ~- 0.50
A toxid of manganese, - - - 0.05
but it appears that this analysis was the result of a simple trial made upon
the mixed mineral.
320 =. Analysis of the Ni ew-Jersey Ores of Zine.
brilliant, lamellar in one direction and slightly conchoida!
i ther; the thin slivers are transparent ; it is fragile,
easily scratched by steel; easily pulverized ; the powder is
of a beautiful orange red. After long exposure to the air»
it becomes covered with a white pearly coating, which ap-
pears to be composed of the carbonates of zinc and man-
ganese. Its specific gravity, according to Bruce, is 6.22.
With the common blowpipe it is infusible without addi-
tion; with borax it gives a yellowish translucent glass.
Under the flame of the blowpipe fed by oxigen and hydro- -
gen it is volatilized, diffusing at the same time a brilliant
white light. It loses nothing by calcination; while it is
hot it appears brown, but as it cools it gradually resumes
its pristine colour. “
t easily dissolves in the cold in the mineral acids, and ~
even in the acetic acid. During the solution heat is evolv-
ed, but without effervescence, and the liquor remains col-
ourless. Still, with the muriatic acid it produces a solu-
tion of a brownish red, which, without the disengagement
~ of any gas, gradually loses its colour: it is probable that a
little chlorine is really. but very gradually disengaged.*
The oxids of zinc and manganese appear to have a great
disposition to unite, and their complete separation is very
difficult. To accomplish this object, I have employed six
processes, of which I proceed to announce the fesults.
: I have repeated the process of Bruce, which consists
in pouring into a nitric solution of the two oxids the oxalic
acid, as long as there is any precipitate, and then in wash-
ing and calcining the residuum. Bruce regarded the cal-
cined precipitate as pure oxid of zinc; but I have remark-
ed, that it always retains a very notable quantity of manga-
nese, and that this is the reason why it always retains a foul
yellow colour, more or less deep—a fact which Bruce ob-
served without searching for the cause. The oxid of man-
ganese is almost perfectly pure, and contains only that por
tion of iron, which, when the solution has not been made
with the greatest caution, is accidentally present. Bruce,
then, was able to obtain by this, process, only an inferior
quantity of manganese, to what really exists in the manga-
nesian oxid of zine.
* We are not told whether the odour of chlorine is perceptible. Editor.
Analysis of the New-Jersey Ores of Zinc. 321
2. I precipitated the two oxids from their solution, by
means of an alkaline sub-carbonate, having taken the pre-
caution to boil the liquor, that it might not retain any por-
n: I calcined the precipitate with the contact of air, till
the manganese was oxidized to a maximum, and afterwards,
in one trial, I treated it with nitric, and in another with
acetic acid—-I evaporated it gently to dryness, and treated
it again with water. Oxid of manganese remained perfect-
ly pure, but the solution which contained the zinc, retained
also a notable quantity of manganese ; and when this solu-
tion was precipitated by an alkaline carbonat, the calcined
precipitate was of a dirty yellow, more or less deep. By
treating this precipitate anew, by means of acetic acid, a
little oxid of manganese is separated, but much the greater
part always remains with the oxid of zine.
3. I precipitated the two oxids by caustic potash in ex-
cess, and allowed it to digest for some time—it was then
filtered. The liquor contained nothing but oxid of zine;
but the residuum contained still a large quantity of this oxid,
and it was necessary to redissolve, to precipitate anew by
potash, and to repeat this operation many times, in order to
complete the separation. *
4. I precipitated the solution of the mineral by an alka-
line carbonate, and through this solution diluted with water,
passed a stream of chlorine in excess—I obtained a violet
Coloured liquor and a black residuum. ‘The liquor being
evaporated in the air, became colourless, and deposited
pure oxid of manganese. The black residuum having been
treated by acetic acid, now contained nothing but oxid of
manganese. The two liquors containing the zinc, were
precipitated by a sub-carbonat. The calcined precipitate
had a light yellow tolour, and it was found to contain about
ho part of its weight of oxid of manganese. [1 is proba-
ble, that by washing very carefully with abundance of wa-
ter, the precipitate of zinc and manganese, and by agitating
it for a long time with chlorine, no particle of the carbonate
of manganese would escape the action of this agent, an
that the two metals would be perfectly separated.
5. M. Berzelius has had the kindness to communicate to
me the following method which has perfectly succeeded.
I precipitated by an-alkaline carbonate, washed the precipi-
tate by decantation, digested it for sometime while stil
322 Analysis of the New-Jersey Ores of Zinc.
moist, in ammonia ; it became immediately brown, and the
filtred liquor gave by ebullition a white deposit, which, by
calcination, became perfectly white; it was the pure oxid
of zinc: but I remarked that the deposit that was insoluble
in ammonia, almost invariably contained oxid of zinc, some-
times in considerable quantity. ‘To remove it entirely we
formed in the acetous fluid, by means of the alkaline car-
bonate. In this manner we separate the two oxids perfect-
ly, and with the greatest precision.
6. Indeed, I have thought, that the zinc being very vola-
tile, and its oxid easily reducible, we may readily separate
it, in the dry way, from the oxid of manganese. This was
practically verified. The oxids were mixed with a deter-
minate weight of powdered charcoal, and the mixtire pla-
ced dans un tét étrort, slightly hollowed, which was covered
by a larger head, perforated in the upper part with little
holes, a white heat was applied and a very abundant white
vapour was disengaged.
As soon as it was certain that this disengagement had
ceased, the head was uncovered, and the matter which it
contained was roasted in order to burn out the remaining
charcoal ; the residuum, which was brown, was weighed,
and to obtain the exact proportion of the manganese, the
weight of the ashes which the charcoal would leave was
subtracted, a weight which had been previously determined
by experiment. ‘The oxide of manganese proved on eX-
amination not to contain the smallest quantity of zinc.
_ All these trials almost exactly agree in giving for the ré-
sult of the analysis of the manganesian oxid of zine :
idofzinc, - - - = 0,8
Red oxid of manganese, - 0,12
1,00
It is difficult to say in what degree of oxidizement the
manganese exists in this mineral. Its colour, and the ap~
pearances which it presents with the muriatic acid, render
it probable that it is, at least, in the state of deutoxid. fo
order to be certain that the union so difficult to be ever
the nnn et eee an ree
Analysis of the New-Jersey Ores of Zine. 323
come, between the oxid of zinc and the oxid of manganese,
did not depend upon the intervention of any undiscover-
ed substances, I dissolved pure oxid of zinc with the tenth
part of its weight of oxid of manganese, equally pure, and
heated the solution by the process deseribed under No. 2.
{ obtained, as in the case of the American mineral, an ace-
tous solution, with which the alkaline carbonates formed a
precipitate, that became, in consequence of calcination, of
a dirty yellow, and contained manganese.
Ul. The black zinciferous mineral, the Frankliniic.
This mineral is composed of the oxid of iron, the oxid of
manganese and the oxid of zinc. The association of these
three oxids has never been before observed, and there is
‘ron whose powder is black. The specific gravity is 4,87.
{tis searcely affected by the muriatic acid in the cold;
ut, by means of this acid, we can separate the carbonate of
lime and the manganesian oxid of zinc, with which it is al-
most always mixed, and thus we can obtain it perfectly pure.
It dissolves very easily in hot muriatic acid, without effer-
‘vescence but with a slight smell of chlorine. The analysis
324 Analysis of the New-Jersey Ores of Zinc.
js effected by dissolving it in muriatic acid, precipitating the
solution by an alkaline carbonat, treating the wet precipitate
by acetic acid to excess, evaporating to dryness by a gentle
heat and removing the acetats of zinc and manganese by
water; the calcined residuum is found to be the pure tri-
toxid of iron. As to the zinc and manganese, they are sep;
arated by the processes pointed out above.
Ina specimen from Franklin there were found :
- - 0,66
eroxid of iron, - - ,
Red oxid of manganese, - 0,16
Oxid of zinc, - - - - - 0,17
99
As the Franklinite acts upon the magnetic needle, the
iron cannot be in the state of per-oxid, but Is probably
oxidized in the second degree. It is evident that the man-
ganese is at least, in the state of deutoxid, because the min-
eral has a brown powder, gives with muriatic acid the
odour of chlorine, and its muriatic solution contains the iron
entirely in the maximum state of oxidizement. It is obvi-
ous that during the solution the two oxids react upon one
another, and that the oxid of iron passes to the maximum
by taking away the oxigen from the oxid of manganese,
which is, on the contrary, reduced to a minimum.
For the purpose of verifying the result of the humid anal-
ysis, I made the following trials :—10 gr. of the franklmite
were heated in a crucible brasqué without addition at the
temperature proper for the assay of iron. A metallic but-
ton was obtained, to which adhered a very light greenish
scoria; the whole weighed 5 gr. 65; the button was °
an iron grey, hard, but impressible by the file, and capable
ef assuming a beautiful polish ; it flattened under the ham-
mer, and was broken with difficulty ; its fracture was grey
and granular, the grains being crystalline; it was analysed,
and found to be an alloy of iron and manganese, without @
particle of zinc ; the loss in the experiment then represents
the oxid of zinc, and the oxigen combined in the’ mineral
with the iron and manganese.
:
'
i
|
Analysis of the New-Jersey Ores of Zine. 325
There were heated at the same temperature, in a cruci-
599
ble “ brasqué,
franklinite, - - - - 10¢r.
i a eR sae he 4
alumine, - - - = - 1.50
lime,*\-) = = <= 1.40
——_—
Wowihp: janie ia! tussles a 16.90
There was obtained a button, weighing 12.77
Loss) ie saetinest nig nines ScdS
which was owing to the volatilized zinc, the oxigen of the
iron, &c.
The fusion was perfect; the metallic button weighed
g4. 6 it flattened under the hammer, and the fracture wa
granular, and of various shades. The scoria was compact,
vitreous, transparent and green; it weighed 8.17
bstract from it - - - - - = 6.90.
There remains - - 1
which represents the oxid of manganese that it contains.
~The g4. 6 of the “fonte” correspond almost exactly with
the 0.66 of the peroxid of iron discovered by analysis ; the
metallic button ought to contain a little manganese, in the
‘State of an alloy.
~The alloy obtained in the first trial, ought thento be com-
posed nearly of
~~ Tron, -. - + - 4.60 at most, - - =< 0.814
Manganese, - - 1.05 at least, - - - 0.186
ee
collection, the pieces in which the red mineral prevails, and
Vou. IL.....No. 42
326 _ A new process for nitrous Ether.
into another those in which the franklinite is the PEAVY
part—the first can be employed as ores of zinc, to afford
that metal by qpulalions with charcoal, or to afford brass
by fusion with copper charcoal. If we stop at the ex-
traction of the zinc, Ai Sa can be Peat ie
melted in the high furnace to obtain the “ fone,” or at
it can be mixed for the same purpose, with the ores Ae
are rich in franklinite
s these minerals contain a considerable quantity of man-
ganese, and their principal gangue is carbonat of lime and
garnet, it is probable that they can be treated in the high
furnace, without addition, and that they will prove very fu-
sible. A “ fonte” of excellent quality may be obtained
from them, and in all prensa eminently adapted for the
production of the natural steel, like that which comes from
the ores of spathic iron. There v mand be deposited in the
chimnies of the high furnaces, a considerable quantity of
the oxid of zine, as is the fact in Belgium, where this sub-
stance is known under the name of cadmie des fourneaur
ou Keiss; it is the richest and best material which can be
used for the preparation of zinc and brass. It is possible
that the abundance of the Keiss may somewhat impede
the operation of the high furnaces, and necessitate the adop~
tion of some particular arrangements, to extract it with fa-
cility ; but the pale of this substance would pay for the
trouble it
"Finally, mite the fo Sars: Fetklinite: which it will be very
practicable to obtain, either by picking or washing, the trial
can be made of preparing in the large way, the same alloy
of iron and manganese, which I have obtained in the sma
way, and it can be seen whether it will not be better hikes
ed than the common “ fonte,” for various uses.
Arr. _ XVII. A new process for Nitrous Ether, by Profes-
wipe hess D.
_ sor Ropertr Hare, M.
making of nitrous ether is a critical process. The
action “of the materials will often spontaneously increase 0
as to produce explosion. It may be conducted with ease
an ‘gid by means of a three necked bottle represente
by Fi ig. 7 , (in the plate which exhibits the eudiometers-)
Ss eameteiiedeteesner tea ea
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Description of a differential Thermometer. 327
The two outermost necks are furnished with funnels, and
the central one with a tube bent a little more than at right
angles, and passing through ice to the bottom of a bottle
surrounded by the same. The acid and alcohol ought to
be very strong. Let a gill of the latter be poured into the
bottle, and then add as much acid as will make it boil brisk-
] en the effervescence relaxes, add more acid until
the addition of this produces no great effect. Then add
more alcohol, and again more acid, till the bottle becomes
about one third full. The ether will be rapidly formed and
collected in the bottle into which the recurved tube leads.
This tube is represented in the plate of about one third of
the proper length. ‘Fhere should be a Pe el wooden
trough adapted to it for holding ice or sno
It might be an improvement if another ack were added
through which the residual liquor might be drawn out.
With this addition, the distillation of ether might be con-
ducted in a way analogous to that of the distillation of whis-
key by the celebrated Scotch still.
Arr. XVIII. Description of a di ifferential Distetonier,
by W. Howarp, M. D. Adjunct Professor if Anatomy
in the University of Maryland.*
Tuis instrument is in imitation of Mr. Leslie’s differen-
tial thermometer, but is on a different principle. _ In his,
the degree of heat is measured by the expansion of air, but
in the present one by the increase of expansive force of the
vapour of ether or spirit of wine in vacuo, which affords a
test of great delicacy, and is easily ¢ constructed.
} A tube (A) ae first made with a ball at each extremi-
ty, in one of which is left a small orifice, a portion of ether
or spirit of wine is dhe introduced, and heat being applied,
is brought to a state of active ebullition. At this moment
the orifice is closed with a piece of wax, and finally hermet-
ically sealed by the blowpipe. The tube may then be care-
“From the London Quarterly Hourwa of Science, Literatare and the Arts.
a See the figure at the end of the volume
328 Description of a differential Thermometer.
fully bent in the form of a hook,* and the scale and foot
being adapted, the instrument is finished. ;
his thermometer is intended to be used in the same
cases as that of Mr. Leslie, but I conceive it to possess some
advantages. Itis more delicate. When a heated body, as
the hand, is approached to one of the balls, the liquid sensi-
bly ascends or descends, and as soon as this cause is re-
moved, begins instantly to return to its former level.
Whereas in the air thermometer, the impulsion to the liquid
is not instantaneous, and it continues to move in the same
direction a moment after the heating cause is removed.
‘Bp
cient to make a difference in the height of the two columns.
To obviate this inconvenience, before the scale is adapted,
the liquid is all to be brought into one ball, and the instru-
ment is then reversed and left for a considerable time 0
that position, that both balls may acquire an equal tempera-
ture, and the small portion of air may be equally diffused
through them. It is then to be restored to its proper posi-
tion, and the point at which the liquid finally settles, is to be
marked as the commencement of the scale. ‘The same op-
eration is to be repeated whenever the instrument has been
deranged by transportation or other causes. =
fit were possible to employ constantly ether or spirit of
wine of exactly the same degree of strength, it is plain from
the laws investigated by Mr. Dalton, that the scale would
be constantly uniform ; but as this is not easily obtained it
is arbitrary. I have hitherto used the division of the mil-
limetre of France.
Note.—This thermometer is made by Pixii Dumotiez, Rue du jardinet,
Paris, and by Mr. Newman, Lyle-street, London.
liquid. upper ball being slightly beat over to contain a small portion of
t The best mode of constructing the above instrument, is to bend the.
tube previous to the introduction of the ether, a considereble pa
which should be boiled out of the tube, in order to ensure the expals
S
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Description of a differential Thermometer. 329
ee ee Se
Heat in the rays of the Moon.
Extract of a leties eo Dr. Howard, dated August me 1820, to
the Editor heal American Journal of Science, &e.
eating
thermometer, have been unsuccessful. Indeed this instru-
ths however skilfully constructed, is not sufficiently deli-
to be affected by the heat of the rays of the moon,
mu as
(Optics, Vol. L.) that the light of ihe full moon is to than. of
our day only as 1 to .
Having blackened the upper ball of my Silferpatial ticks,
mometer, I placed it in the focus of a thirteen inch reflect-
mg mirror, which was opposed to the light of a bright full
e li He nee ee to sink, and: jn half
| to be present, chat hard, was no falacy in the coche ,
of i Its being a positive proof of the calorific power of the lu-
ar rays, and at the same time sirens an evidence of the
great ces sf the instrument.’
stmosphe: ric air ; ‘itis also convenient to Mure the ether ofa red saioak: by
2 dition of a drop of tincture of co
Thave constructed upon the same eancioke ea photometer, and an ethrio
scope, both of which, though liable to some obje ections, are most tecinaaiy
ments upon the light of ag lpa ee For this purpose. the instrument
is constructed as shewn in the engraving, by Dr. Howard ; the upper
; covered by a thin eauaing of Tuan sik, and the other. “ gold leat,
specs by adilute spirit-varnish ; it is then covered by a thin glass shade
from the flame of a wax candle, it fe as
pee ie I had previonsly ascertained, by a comparison of shadows, te
give the light of ei x candles, caused a depression ad
t ‘
‘the |
Placed at the same ¢ distance frem the instramen
330 Account of « new inflammable dir Lamp.
Art. XIX. Account of a new influmalable Air Lamp, by
Hall.
Professor Jacos os of Nas assau
TO PROFESSOR SILLIMAN.
Princeton, Feb. 11th, 1820.
. Dear Sir, ee
Phe eet facility with which hydrogen gas may be in-
a moderate electric spark, suggested to
flamed by even
Volta his *ofleniniable air Jam his, with a slight altera-
tion, was patented, as a source , of instantaneous light; an
has not. been so Happily re removed; the s elentig phot Which
is connected with this instrument, is, like all other electrical
Description. —
A Serpe at the end of the volume. }
*
{
Account of a new inflammable Air Lamp. 331
of wood, two inches thick, with a groove turned in its top,
in which the jar K. L. is fitted. There is also a hole,
through which the tube E. passes, and terminates. Fis
a small calorimoter, which is surrounded by the jar K. L.
From the bottom of the calorimoter, proceed the two wires
N. QO. (which connect the poles of the instrument) through
R.S. M. is a small blowpipe, with stop cocks, which com-
municates by means of a glass tube, with the interior of the
jar K. L. 5 this tube must reach a little above the calorimo-
ter, on the inside of the jar. G.is a glass vessel, placed in
the jar above the calorimoter, the contents of which must
be about one third more than that part of the jar which
contains the calorimoter. H. is a vessel of like capacity
with G. having an open mouth I, anda glass tube G. H.
open at both ends, passing from the bottom, through P. and
terminating at the bottom, within the glass vessels G. It
is scarcely necessary to add, that all the joining of this in-
Strument must be perfectly air tight.
. To use the instrument.
_ Remove vessel H. and drop a few small pieces of zine
into G, through P. ; then fill G. with a weak solution of sul-
phuric acid and water; pour it also into the box A. B. C.
D.; through this stop cock A. till on a level with Y. Z. ;
then by blowing with the mouth into the box at A. the air
above the fluid being compressed, will be forced up into the
jar K. L. through this glass tube E.; and when the jar is
completely full, turn the cock at A. and adjust the vessel H. .
mits place. Hydrogen gas will quickly be formed ; the
acidulous water in G, will be forced up into H ; then
turning the cock A. the remaining water in K. L. will de-
scend through E into the box below, and leave the jar filled
with the gas; the fluid at the same time descending from
-into G. Now, if you wish to set fire to the hydrogen,
place a small iron or platina wire from N. to O. blow up
the acidulous fluid into the calorimoter by the stop cock A;
the wire will be instantly heated, and by turning the stop
cock of the blowpipe M. so that the gas may strike the
heated wire, it will be inflamed, and a taper may be light-
d. The action of the. acidulous fluid on the zinc of the
calorimoter, will furnish as much gas as will be consumed ;
$32 Cutbush on the Voliare Lamp.
but, should there be an unusual consumption of gas, it may
be supplied by suspending a bar of zinc in the vessel G,
the lower end of which should reach only one third below
the brim of the vessel ; the reason for which will be obvious
to those who understand the structure of the instrument.
The stop cock at C. is for drawing off the acidulated water,
~ when it becomes saturated with the zinc.
The calorimoter which I use differs a little in construc- ©
tion from those commonly made, and perhaps has some ad-
vantages. The following is a description of it: Take a
‘sheet of copper, say four inches wide, and eighteen or twen-
ty inches long; bend it in the form represented’ in Fig. 2.
{see the plate at the end of the volume,) which is preserved
in the required shape by a band of the same metal sur-
rounding it; the intervals between each fold should be
about an inch; then cast in proper moulds plates of zinc, of
different sizes, so as to slide between these interstices,
reaching from the bottom to the top, the edges of which
should be grooved into little strips of wood, in order to pre-
vent contact with the copper 3 all these plates of zinc should
be connected together by a strip of copper along their up-
per edges. By this construction these plates can be easily
- removed, and cleaned whenever required. With an in-
strument of the above dimensions, I have melted off fine
“Bah OVER 3 SE, 2b; esd step nescay 3
Sag ot age
ie
ee
r. XX. Account of an improvement ii the Electrical
Lamp, by Dr. James Cursusn, of Philadelphia, ine
_ letter to the Editor. |
TO PROFESSOR SILLIMAN.
i Pritavenruta, March 15, 1820.
Some years ago, I purchased an inflammable air lamp,
commonly called the Voltaic Lamp, made on the original
construction, which [ laid by, as not only troublesome to
‘use, but very uncertain in its operation. A description 0!
“the apparatus with its appendages, may be seen in Adams”
Sennen nen a ne
Cutbush on the Voltaic Lamp. 333
Philosophy, vol. 2, page 93, American edition. Since the
original was contrived by Mr. Volta, aided by Dr. Ingen-
houz, several very important improvements have been
made—more especially that arrangement by which is
formed in the bottle extemporaneously, and of course with-
e use of an additional bottle and syphon, or the pre-
vious filling of bladders with hydrogen gas, a mode heretor
fore adopted both by Volta and Ingenhouz. In the appa-
ratus which [ procured, before it was altered I was obliged
to fill the bottle with water, remove the stop cock and its
connexion with the string from the electrophorus, and adapt
a syphon coming from a bottle or flask containing dilute
sulphuric acid and iron or zinc filings; and when filled
with gas, to pour water into the upper vessel, in order to
ferce it out when the cock was turned, which causes by its
connexion with the plate of the electrophorus the transmis~
sion of the electric fluid, and of course its passage between
the two conducting points. Filling the gas bottle in this
way with gas, is at all times attended with trouble. Not
possessing one of the improved kind, which obviates this
mconvenience, I thought of having mine altered, which I
had done, and found it to answer the purpose. The alter-
ation consisted in removing a brass tube, which went from
the lower to the upper vessel, and substituting in its place
a glass one, which was attached and cemented to the
upper vessel, so that when it was inserted in the bottle, and
the upper screwed to the lower vessel, it would occupy
such a distance as to be equivalent to the capacity of the
water holder, a circumstance necessary to be attended to,
in order to prevent the fluid when the gas is generated in
the bottle from running over. It is obvious, therefore, that
according to this improvement, all that is necessary 1s 40 fill
the bottle with a mixture of sulphuric acid and water, in
the proportion of about one of the former to eight of the
latter, and throw in as occasion requires through the tube,
when the upper is screwed to the lower vessel, either zinc
or iron filings. ‘The gas, as it is generated, will cause the
fluid to rise in the tube into the upper vessel, which is al-
ways ready by its pressure, when the cock is turned, to
force it through the aperture so as to come in contact with.
the spark. The bottle containing the diluted acid will last
many months without being renewed, and when the satura-
Vo. IT.....No. 2. 43
teeern
334 — Cutbush on the Voltaic Lamp.
tion has been completed, and sulphate of irou or of zine |
formed, as the case may be, the quantity of water will al- :
ways prevent its crystallization. Hence it is a matter of
t to have the acid sufficiently diluted.
n consequence of some defect or imperfection in the
electrophorus cake, or of its splitting, which sometimes
happens, I have found it necessary to remelt it, or to make
a new one, by melting the best yellow rosin, and adding a
small quantity of Spanish brown. Having melted the rosin,
it was poured into a shallow dish made of tin plate, and left
to cool undisturbed, not permitting however any bubbles to
appear on its surface.
The electrophorus belonging to my apparatus, when ex- 4
cited will retain-its effect for many months. I excited it in
the usual manner, by gently warming it, and rubbing it with
a foxtail, catskin, or silk handkerchief ; the former of which
{ found preferable. When thus excited, I have been suc-
cessful in producing a spark even in the dampest weather.
It requires, however, that the box, which contains the elec~
ra eka should be kept as tight as possible.
ere is one defect which in fact is inseparable from the
construction of the cock; namely, that however perfectly
tight it may be, by frequent use it becomes loose, and suf- ’
rs the gas to escape gradually. To prevent this, and to
make the cock as tight as possible, I have used various ex-
pedients, but the following I find preferable : mix a portion
of tallow with finely pulverized plumbago, so as to render
the whole as stiff as possible; then apply it to the cock.
From observation I have found, that hydrogen gas pre-
pared by using zinc, makes its escape more readily than
that prepared with iron filings; for, under the same cit-
cumstances, the former I have discovered to disappeat
sometimes in twenty-four hours, while the latter has re-
mained more than a week. In consequence of this cir-
cumstance, I employ iron filings in preference to those ol
zinc, although we know that. the gas from the latter 1s
much purer and consequently lighter, whereas that procur-
ed by using iron filings contains more or less carbon, and J#
consequently impure.
: he lamp answers every purpose, and.I find it more eer
_ tain for lighting a candle than any other contrivance, and
therefore preferable to any which L have tried ; having used
Graves’ Meteor. 335
at different times the phosphoric match bottle, the pocket
lights, the condensing syringe, flint and steel, &c. am
aware, howeyer, that the Voltaic lamp is not much used,
and has been even laid aside, in consequence of the uncer-
tainty of its operation. But from experience I can say, that
since I have had the alteration made, I have seldom been
disappointed in producing flame, -and the apparatus is now
always in order. The only thing to be attended to is, to
throw in as occasion requires, some iron filings ; the quan-
tity of which at a time will be readily known. One cubic
inch of gas will light the taper at least ten times, if the cock
is quickly turned. Therefore, from the quantity of gas, we
may calculate the number of times we may light a candle.
Arr. XXI. Account of a gelatinous Meteor, by Rurus
Graves, Esq. formerly Lecturer on Chemistry at Dart-
mouth College, (communicated by Professor Dewey.)
Ow the evening of the thirteenth day of August, 1819,
between the hours of eight and nine o’clock, was seen in
the atmosphere, at Amherst, Massachusetts, a falling meteor
or fire ball, of the size, as represented by an intelligent
Spectator, of a man’s hat, or a large blown bladder, of a
brilliant white light resembling burnished silver.
The position of this spectator being in a direct line of
the street where the luminous ball appeared, and at the
distance of not more than five hundred yards, with the
sight bounded by the buildings, there could be no decep-
tion relative to the direction that it took. Its altitude, at
its first discovery, was two or three times the height of the
houses ; it fell slowly in a perpendicular direction, emitting
great light, till it appeared to strike the earth in front of
the buildings, and was instantly extinguished, with a heavy
explosion. At the same instant, as appeared from the re-
port, and from the ringing of the church bell, an unusually
white light was seen a few minutes afterwards, by two la-
dies in a chamber of Mr. Erastus Dewey. While they
Were sitting with two candles burning in the room, a bright
uminous circular spot suddenly appeared on the side wall
of the chamber near the upper floor in front of them, of
the size of a two feet stand-table leaf This spectrum se-
336 Graves’ Meteor.
scended slowly with a tremulous motion nearly to the low-
er floor and disappeared.
In critically examining the chamber where the foregoing
oar was observed, it appeared that the light must
ave entered through the east front window in a diagonal ~
direction, and impinged on the north wall of the chamber
back of the ladies, and thence reflected to the south wall in
front of them, forming the circular spectrum, with the cor-
responding tremulous motion of the meteor, and descend-
ing with it in the same direction, according to the fixed
laws of incidence and reflection.
_ Early on the ensuing morning, was discovered in the
door yard of the above mentioned Erastus Dewey, at about
twenty feet from the front of the house, a substance unlike
any thing before observed by any one who saw it. The
situation in which it was found, being exactly in the direc-
tion in which the luminous body was first seen, and in the
only position to have thrown its light into the chamber, (as
before remarked,) leaves no reasonable doubt that the sub-
stance found was the residuum of the meteoric bo
This substance when first seen by the writer was entire,
no part of it having been removed. It was in a circular
rm, resembling a sauce or sallad dish bottom upwards,
about eight inches in diameter, and something more than
one in thickness, of a bright buff colour, with a fine nap
upon it similar to that on milled cloth, which seemed to
defend it from the action of the air, On removing the
villous coat, a buff coloured pulpy substance of the consis-
tence of good soft soap, of an offensive, suffocating smell
appeared ; and on a near approach to it, or when immedi-
ately over it, the smell became almost insupportable, pro-
ducing nausea and dizziness. A few minutes exposure to
the atmosphere changed the buff into a livid colour resem-
bling venous blood. It was observed to attract moisture
very readily from the air. A half-pint tumbler was nearly
hail Giled with the substance. It soon began to liquify and
form a mucilaginous substance of the consistence, colours
anc feeling of starch when prepared for domestic use. Th
tumbler was then set in a safe place, where it remained
undisturbed for two or three days; and when examined
afierwards, the substance was found to have all evaporated;
exeept a small dark coloured residuum, adhering to the
Crystallization of Snow. 337
bottom and sides of the glass, which, when rubbed between
the fingers, produced a fine ash-coloured powder without
taste or smell; the whole of which migit have been inclu-
ded in a lady’s s thimble.
The place where the substance was first found was exam-
ined, and nothing was to be seen but a thin membranous
substance adhering to the ground similar to that found on
glass
This singular substance was submitted to the action of
acids. With the muriatic and nitric acids, both concen-
sulphuric acid a violent effervescence ensued, a gaseous
dy was evolved, and nearly the whole substance dissoly-
ed. There being no chemical apparatus at hand, the
evolving gas was not preserved, or its properties examined.
Arr. XXII. On the crystallization of Saiki: by Profedser
_Jacos Green, of Nassau Hall, Princeton.
_ Tux crystallization of snow has for a long time excited
the attention of the curious; few accurate observations
however have been made upon it. Like the other phenom-
ena of crystallization, this process is involved in much ob-
seurity. Beccaria supposed that the regularity often no-
ticed m these crystals was owing to electricity, and this will
vapour is fornied or ibndwinsbd; the bodies i in contact with ‘aa
va become electrical. Haiiy has rendered it extreme-
ly probable that the integrant particles of matter always
combine in the same body in the same manner, and that the
combination is occasioned by cohesive attraction. May
We not rationally suppose that what is called electrical ae
would induce them to cohere, not sarentsgrerer A
in certain determinate forms. ne ot here repeat the
= mene which prove that the shone of electrical
precisely analogous to those of magnetism, or
that manned rill roduce asteroidal figures with steel filings.
With these hints [ leave the theoretical part of the subject.
338 Crystallization of Snow.
On the 16th of March, (1819) at 5 o’clock P. M.I had
the pleasure of observing the beautiful asteroidal figures
sometimes assumed by flakes of snow. On examination
each appeared to be compesed of six thin spicule, diverging
like rays from a centre. ere was but little or no wind,
and Farenheit’s thermometer stood at 33°. The figures
which I observed are exhibited in the plate at the end of
the volume, and the numbers annexed to them corrrespond
with those in the following description. 7
No. 1. This is a simple hexagonal star, the radii were of
equal lengths and the angles of convergence being equal,
each angle was of course 60°.
No. 2. This crystal differs from No. 1, only in the length
and breadth of the spicule, they were shorter and broader.
o. 3. A simple star, except that the radii proceed
from a central knob.
No. 4. The same as the last, differing from it only in
having the radii bifurcated at the end.
o. 5. Differing from No. 4 in having three prongs at
the extremity of the radii.
No. 6. The radii pinnated near the centre, giving the ap-
pearance of regular hexagonal figures one within the other,
about half the distance between the pinne and the ex-
tremity of each radius there was a knob.
No. 7. Pinnated as No. 6, but without the knob, and
having each radius trifurcated at the end.
e snow commenced falling, the above figures
were more distinct and durable, but they could occasionally
be discovered for about an hour amid the amorphous flocculi.
Just as the crystals No. 6 and 7 began to melt, their pinna-
ted radii were most brilliant, assuming somewhat the ap-
pearance of prismatic drops of dew. ‘The figures were not
ll of the same dimensions ; their principal difference was
similar to that stated in Nos. 1 and 2. These figures were
examined both with the single microscope and the naked
eye ; when not pinnated they were viewed with the most
satisfaction without using a glass.
M. De Rattee, who has published an interesting article om
this subject in the French Encyclopeedia, states, that regu-
lar crystals of snow do not often occur, but that the flakes
are commonly of an irregular and unequal figure. He also
Crystallization of Snow. 339
vemarks it is worthy of observation that the different sorts of
crystals are scarcely ever seen during the same fall of
snow, the varieties appearing at different hours of the day
or on different days. I am of opinion they occur more fre-
quently than is here supposed, and that different crystals
are seen during the same fall of snow. e have besides
the instance now noticed, the authority of Dr. John Netts,
who has published a paper in the 49th Vol. (1756) of the
Philosophical Transactions, entitled “ an account of a meth-
od of observing the wonderful configurations of the smallest
shining particles of snow.” In one day and night (he ob-
serves) I found fifteen, twenty or more particles of snow dif-
ferently formed, such as Olaus Magnus mentions, and in the
year 1740, on the 11th, 12th, 13th, 21st and 23d of January,
and also on the 6th, 23d and 24th of February, I had an op-
portunity of delineating eighty different admirable figures of
snow, and of observing their numberless varieties. :
Accompanying this paper there are figures of ninety-one
of these beautiful configurations ; the size of them is much
less than those observed by me on the 16th of March, and
as they were examined with a double microscope, greater
complexity was noticed. Most of Dr. Netts’ figures are
hexagonal, but some of the stars exhibited twelve radii.
In April 1817, Dr. P. S. Townsend read before the Ly-
eeum of Natural History of New-York, a very interesting
memoir, on the crystallization of snow. In this paper the
Doctor has collected most of the facts known respecting this
subject, and has referred to the writers who have considered
it. His communication was published in the American:
Monthly Magazine for May, 1818,
% * * * * *
Sometime since an account of stellar snow was forwarded
340 Foreign Literature and Science.
INTELLIGENCE AND MISCELLANIES.
estos
Foreign Laterature and Science.
(Communicated by Professor Griscom, of New-York.)
The number of books in all the public libraries of Ger-
many, (including Austria and Prussia,) amounts at least to
four millions, without reckoning memoirs, pamphlets, peri-
odical publications, dissertations, and manuscripts.
Professor Goerg, of Leipsick, has proved, it is said, very
satisfactorily, that the Tinea of wood ep seshenens acid.)
ly restored he contact with this acid. An animal body
in the opinion of this professor, may be readily converted
into a mummy by this substance. The discovery of this
eid} is likely to oh ee important to anatomy, domestic
economy, and medicine
In the empire of Austria, anere are no less than twenty-
three botanic gardens.
The unfolding of the manuscripts of Herculaneum, is care
ried on with very considerable success by a chemical pro-
cess, under the direction of Sir H. Davy.” Of one thousand
‘six hundred and ninety-six pieces which have been found,
eighty-eight have been happily unrolled, and the writing
is very legible ; three hundred and nineteen are not legible,
and twenty-four have been given as presents to foreign
princes. There remain one thotisand two hundred and
sixty-five, of which one hundred, or one hundred : mt twenl-
ty will, it is hoped, be saved from oblivion.
A plant, called Chinininha by the natives of Peru, b
tae analyzed at Madrid. . It proves to be an act
febrifuge
sce ee
Poreign Literature and Science. 34h
. The number of new works and new impressions offered
for sale at the fair of ‘Leipsie last year, by three hundred
and thirty-six booksellers, amounted to three thousand one
hundred and ninety-four.
_ Senifelden, the original inventor of the Lithographic art,
(printing on stone,) has contrived a substitute for the carbo-
nate of lime, used for that purpose, which has hitherto been
found in perfection only in Bavaria. He forms an artificial
plate, of stony substances, attached to paper, which he calls
papgrographic. It is said to possess great advantages.
e machines are oftgped for sale at Paris, at from twenty
io Giicty dollars each.
“A new method of taking the lives of animals destined
for a market, which greatly diminishes their sufferings, i is
now employed in London. Itis effected by means of azot-
ic gas, The meat, it is: said, retains its freshness better,
has a more agreeable taste, and is more easily preserved.
The greater number of the butchers are in the use of this
method, Rev. Ency. de Paris, Jan. 1820.
n Academy of Natural Sciences has been formed at
Catt, which holds its sittings in one of the halls of the
medical and surgical college.
_At the village of Chatiauneuf, in the department of the
‘lower Alps, in France, a church was struck by three suc-
cessive thunder bolts, on the 11th of July, 1819, about 11,
_ A.M. during the installation of anew Rector, The com-
pany were nearly all thrown down, many of them were driv-
en out of the door, eighty-two were wounded, and nine kill-
ed. The priest who was celebrating mass, was not ag a
on account, it is believed, of his silken dress. . ogs:
in whe church were killed. The house was filled with black
moke.
Hot water is now carried through the streets of Paris for ©
the e purpose of supplying baths in private houses. It is
transported in large casks, } in which are stoves, sO ae
ed, that the heat is spent almost entirely in raising the t
perature of the water. It is OEE from the casks isuch
Vou. U1.....No. 2.
342 — Foreign Literature and Science.
pipes, into the apartment required, and afforded at a very
moderate price.
M. Gonord, of Paris, has discovered the art of enlarging
or diminishing the scale or size of an engraving on copper,
without changing the plate ; in other words, if an engraved
plate of copper be given to him, he can make use of it in
such a manner as to obtaini se peeseinne of any size he pleas-
es, either greater or less than those of the plate. From
the plates of a folio atlas, for sroepiel he can produce an
atlas in octavo, and without changing the plates. He is
able, also, by the methods he adopts, to make impressions
upon various materials, as paper, metal, porcelain, marble,
. An. de Chimie, Jan. 1820,
Steam Navigation is now making a rapid progress in
Great Britain. There are on the river Clyde, twenty-five
steam boats, the largest of which lias a burden of ninety-one
tons, and the least of thirty-five. Twelve of these boats
pass between Glasgow and Greenock. There are four steam
boats on the Frith of wh gan heigl: are said to carry during
2 L head.
hom Bain The number of pas- |
sengers who were conveyed along the Forth and Clyde
canal, between Glasgow and Edinburgh; amounted in 1818
to ninety-four thousand. two hundred and fifty ; between
Glasgow and Paisley on the Ardrossan canal, fifty-one thou-
saad. seven hundred; and from Glasgow along the Monk-
pane, eighteen thou sand.
. ‘Tei is: calculated that a person has fifteen hundred opportt-
nities of leaving London in the course of twenty-four hours
by stage coaches, including the repeated trips of the coaches
which run short distances. It is understood that three hun-
dred stage coaches pass soak Hyde-Park corner daily.
It appears bya note in the 16th number of the Journal of
the Royal Institution of London, that the pyrolignous acid
feo crema Oe
Foreign Literature and Science. 3438
was known as early as 1661, and its property of converting
minium into sugar of lead. .
Homer’s Hiad.—A copy of Homer’s Iliad has been dis-
covered in the Ambrosian library of Milan which appears to
be of the fourth century, nearly six ages older than that on
which the editions of Homer are founded. It contains six-
ty pictures equally ancient. They are on vellum. Th
characters of the manuscript are square capitals, according
to the usage of the best ages, without distinction of words,
without accents, or the aspirates; that is to say without
any sign of the modern Greek orthography.
Heat of a Vacuum.—Gay Lussac has shown by experi-
ment that when a delicate air thermometer is enclosed ina
vacuum, and that vacuum is suddenly either enlarged or di-
minished no change whatever takes place in the thermome-
ter. But if the smallest quantity of air be admitted, the
compression, or more properly the diminution of the space
occasions an elevation of temperature, and the enlargement
occasions cold. This result he seems to consider as
strengthening the hypothesis that caloric is not matter, or
it does not exist independent of matter—An. de
Chimie, Mar. 1820. =
taught there by French nuns. Several African princes
have visited the schools, and measures have been taken te
establish others in the interior. The Senegal children pos-
Sess itude for instruction. “They read, write and
calculate with facility. Several of the monitors have be-
come qualified to conduct other schools. The teacher
344 Foreign Literature and Science.
_ (Dard) appears to be a man of great mind. The establish-
ment at St. Louis is under the direction of the Education
Society in Paris. ©
A society is to be established in Edinburgh for the pro-
motion of arts, similar to that in London, and connected
with a repository of models on the plan of that at the Adel-
The king of Denmark has granted a pension of two hun-
dred crowns during two years, to four persons distinguished
for their knowledge, to encourage them to travel in foreign
countries.
Dr. Perret, of Switzerland, has found that the roots of
the Plantain, (Plantago major, minor, et latifolia,) is an
excellent febrifuge.
Literature of the Low Countries—During the first quar-
_ ter of the present year there have appeared in the low
countries (kingdom of Holland) three hundred and eighty-
six new publications, of which eighty-eight are original ;
of these sixty are in Dutch, nine in French, four in Flem-
ish, four in Latin, and eleven in other languages.
t
ay
wf tL. 1
ment ae in France.
_ Necrology.—Sir Charles Blagden, the celebrated Eng-
lish Philosopher; died at the house of Count Berthollet,
Arceuil, near Paris, on the 26th of March last. He was
eighty years of age, and retained to the last the sprightli-
ness and vivacity of middle-age. He spent much of his
tme in France, and was a diligent frequenter of the Insti-
tute, where he held an honourable seat. He was noted for
pursuing the most exact plan in the distribution of his time,
in his meals, his visits, &e. He kept a journal of “passing
events, in which were found the occurrences 0
ing preceding his death. He kept up a regular correspon-
_ dence with his friend, Sir Joseph Banks. He left a con-
siderable fortune, and was very liberal towards the poor-
% i
: ;
Foreign Literature and Science. 345
~ “Volney, the French traveller and philosopher, died on
the 22d of April last, aged sixty-three.
New Alkalies—-Two new vegetable Alkalies have been
discovered by French Chemists, which they have named
Brucine and Delphine. The first is found in what the
discoverers (Pelletin and Coventon) call false Angustura
bark, (Brucca Anti-dysenterica.) It crystallizes in oblique
quadrangular prisms, colourless and transparent. It dis-
solves in five hundred parts of boiling water, and in eight
hundred and fifty of cold water. Its taste is exceedingly
aerid and bitter. Administered in doses of a few grains it
is poisonous. It forms neutral salts and bisalts, which
erystallize with facility. ity os
Delphine was obtained by Lassaigne and Fenculle in the
— seeds of Staves Acre, (Delphinum Staphysagria:) It is
crystalline when wet, but becomes opaque as it dries. Its
taste is acrid and bitter. It melts by heat, and becomes
hard and resinous. It is not very soluble in water. It
forms neutral salts with the acids.
‘Count de Romanzow is fitting out at his own expense
an expedition which is to pass over the ice from Asia to
America, to the north of Behring’s Straits ; and to ascend
one of the rivers which disembogue on the western coast,
in Russian America, in order to penetrate into the unknown
tracts that lie between Icy Cape and the river Mackenzie.
New Hydraulic Machine—Mr. Clymer has invented in
London a pump ofa simple construction but powerful in
its.effects. It raises and discharges two hundred and fifty
or three hundred gallons in a minute, not only of water but
of stones and other hard substances whieh are not too
heavy, Itis of easy transportation, and appears particu-
larly well adapted to ships, on account of its not being easily
choked by sand, coffee, sugar, and other impediments.
An Egyptian Society has been formed in London for
the purpose of sobishing Lithographic prints of all the
, Egyptian monuments of architecture and sculptere as well
aS Of tdinhiiobewced hieroglyphic inscriptions, in order, ii
possible, by a comparison of signs, to discover their mean-
Ing.
346 Foreign Laterature and Science.
Lithographic printing has made a rapid progress in Rus-
sia. The plates illustrative of the journey of Col. Drou-
ville in Persia, are of the finest execution. The designs
are from the hand of M. tata a distinguished artist of
Petersburg.
The Iron Masters of Sweden have granted to Professor
Berzelius an annuity of five hundred crowns, for the servi-
ces which he has rendered to the chemical arts.
“The ex-king of Norway, Prince Christian Frederick, of
Denmark, is leading a literary life in Italy. He lately read
a dissertation on Mount Vesuvius at a meeting of the Aead-
emy of Sciences at Naples.
Count Lasterjoie is publishing at his Lithographic press
in Paris, a series of plates to illustrate 6 machines, instru-
ments, utensils, constructions, apparatus, &c. employed in
rural and domestic econoniy, saponins: to. designs from va-
rious parts of Europe.
A vessel has been constructed for the nav ization: of the
Forth and Clyde canal in Scotland entirely of forged iron,
the sheets being pieced and riveted nearly as in a common
boiler. It is larger, and at the same time lighter, and sails
better than any of those employed. It will of course be
more durable. It will contain two hundred pnewnee”
Rev. Enc. Mai 1820.*
The number of letters daily distributed be the Post-Office
at Paris is nearly thirty-two thousand, and of Journals eigh-
teen hundred. Whilst in London the amount of letters 1s
ene hundred and thirty-three eases and of Jou
twenty-six thousand. This, according to the respective
population of the two places, is, in Paris one letter for sixty-
ty-two persons, and one Journal for three hundred a”
eighty readers ; but in London, one Lane for pine ane
and a Journal for forty-three readers:—Idem.
The literature of Italy is rapidly i SPEIER: The “ Bib-
liotheca Italiana,” edited by Acerbi, the author of travels to
the north Cape, announces that seven hundred cases ©
* And a private letter from Glasgow fo the Editor.
Foreign Literature and Science. 347
‘books of one hundred and fifty killogramms each, are annu-
ally imported into Milan from France, Switzerland and
England; and without including the books which come
from Germany, and especially from the Austrian states, and
this commerce is principally in the way of exchange. The
number of books published in Lombardy alone in the year
1819, amounted in value to more than one million and forty
thousand dollars.—Idem. : | pics *
B. Braconnot has succeeded in converting by means of
sulphuric acid, various ligneous substances, such as saw
dust, linen rags, hempen tow, &c. into gum and _ sugar.
‘The foundation of a new school for the fine arts has been
id in Paris, in the place where the museum of French
monuments has been kept. oisin patil on i eR
~The canal of Alexandria in Egypt is prosecuted with vig
our. Mines of lead and iron have been lately discovered
im upper Egypt.
A steam boat has been constructed to run between Stock-
holm and St. Petersburg. The passage, which has hereto-
fore been tedious and -uneertain, can now be effected in
sixty hours. : eC
The population of Sweden has increased in three years,
viz. 1816, 17 and 18, by seventy-two thousand three hun-
348 344 Foreign Literature and Science.
‘dred and forty-six individuals. In the capital there has
‘been a slight diminution, owing to the tendency of rich
proprietors to engage more extensively in iron works and ag-
ricultural employments.. The whole population in 1818,
"was two millions five hundred and forty’ -three thousand four
hopdrest and twel ve
ve WE: Koster ‘ibetntie of Bern, in Switzerland, has-invent-
eda method of producing transparent pictures so as to ex-
“hibit the effect of the sun, moon and fire in the greatest per-
fection. His landscapes of Switzerland are said to be mu
more perfect representations of the sublime scenery of thee
aa regions than any thing hitherto produced.
Oil has been wre in Italy from the grape seed. lk
affords a light equal to that of nut oil: the smoke ee odour
are nr dueer lle sb ee ; :
SPrepaistibn are. making i in Malta to Fiucenune the ae
of ‘mutual instruction on the coast of Africa, through the me-
‘dium of the Arabic. A small book has been printed in that
Saas explanatory of the system. .
a gah rene in Corfa. La oe has piece from
the English government the necessary instructions for cat-
vying the project into execution. The Count Capo D'ls-
tria, a native of Corfu, has contributed by various dona-
tions to the endowment of this. University. ‘He bas furnish-
ed M. Politi, nda of chemistry i in the new University,
* means o 2 p mieal labora-
st we meaiaicky of artists and men of letters in Paris, have ¢?-
= on to publish ‘a collection of lithographical portraits of
> , heparan eee of that country, with a short bi-
. ee as fees ee ean itis obtained. Two numbers, 98
_ taming’ each four Saeko -sarmalianen &c. are all
: “lished monthly a : oo num mber.— seery te’ :
h person, and a fac simile of their
Foreign Literature and Science. 349
The following method-of producing pictures of metallic ve-
— by M. Goldsmith, has been read before the French
titute. Place a few grains of iron and copper filings on
a glass plate at a certain distance from each other. Add to
each parcel a few drops of nitrate of silver ; the silver is soon
Seropitefed | ina metallic state, while the copper and the
on are oxidated and coloured. Then with a small stick ar-
range the ramifications of the silver, while the flame of a taper
placed under the glass, promotes the evaporation of the flu-
id, facilitates the reaction’of the materials, blackens the
plat e, and thus forms the ground of the picture.—An. de
Chimie, Mai 1820.
Thenard has succeeded in causing pure water to absorb
oxygen to the enormous extent of six hundred and
‘times its volume. The process is complicated. The prin~
cipal agents he employs are barytes, and muriatic and sulphu-
ric acid. The oxygenated water has a taste slightly astrin-
gent and bitter. It whitens the epidermis and occasions
very pungent sensations. A great number of the metallic
oxids act upon it with such energy as to produce explosions.
An. de Chimie.
TNotices icated by aC Jent.1
pireuce. Ps wv J
Boracice Acid.
bout two pr. ct. of Boracic Acid has been obtained by
evaporating the waters of the lakes in Cherchaio, and it has
en proposed to deliver this acid in Paris, in any quantity,
at three frances the kilogram. The acid is in small greyish
scales, taste slightly bittter, lrg solution reddens, litmus,
Xe. Tilloch’s Phil. Mag. Dec. 1819.
** M. Lucas, in a letter to M. Arago, sean the occur-
rence of boracic acid in the water of cano. It is found
on the surface, at the parts most nite = where vapors
are continually rising. It occurs in a very white light state,
though sometimes soiled, and sometimes mixed with sul-
phur. The crusts are generally about three quarters of an
inch in thickness, and sometimes above a foot in extent. It.
Vou. H.iNe. 2 45
350 Foreign Literature and Science.
occurs in scales, and sometimes fibrous. Their nature was
ascertained by D. Gioacchino Azzorto, of Messina.”
Brande’s Journal, 16th No.
“ New method of preparing the Purple of Cassius.—The
Count de Maistre says, that placing a sequin in contact with
mercury, at one of its surfaces, and twenty-four hours after
fusing it with an equal weight of tin, an alloy was obtained,
which was fusible in boiling resin. Afterwards triturating
this alloy with pure caustic magnesia in a mortar, a powder
was obtained of a very fine purple colour.” Ibid.
“ Fulminating Gold.—Count de Maistre also describes @
fulminating gold, obtained by pouring a small quantity of
solution of gold into red wine, (Bordeaux,) a sediment form-
ed, which, when dried, and placed on burning charcoal, in
an iron capsule, exploded.” Ibid.
“ New Alkali—M.M. Pelletier, and Caventon, have dis-
covered a new alkali in the seeds of the Veratium sae a
it is erystallizable, and extremely acrimonious.” I
‘“Mr. Donovan ;has published in the Annan of Philos.
by: D al ae a 3 L h e re-
pati peazutenee~ gies 6 oe dw 4 mecer be cecal
late to the chemical constitution of these compounds, and
the proportion of their elements ; but are concluded by an
examination of the common mercurial ointment, and an ac-
ten or fifteen minutes, whilst common ointment required
thirty or forty minutes, and rarely was any eruption produ-
Foreign Literature and Science. 351
eed on the part rubbed. The use of it is extremely clean-
ly, and its expense is very much below that of the common
ointment. For the preparation of this ointment it is essen-
tial that the lard be entirely free from salt, or else calomel
will be formed. The oxid may be prepared by decomposing
calomel by pure potash, or by pouring solution of nitrate
of mercury into caustic alkaline solution. The fat only dis-
solves three grains of oxid for each drachm, but the quanti-
in the ointment, may easily be increased. The oxid
should be first triturated with a little cold lard, to make the
penetration complete. The degree of heat is important.
At 212° the oxid and lard will not combine, at 600° the ox-
id will be decomposed, and mercury volatilized, at 500°
and 400° the oxid is partially decomposed, some red oxid
being formed, and mercury reduced. e best heat is be-
tween 300° and 320°; it should be maintained at least an
hour, and the ointment should be stirred till cold. This
ointment is now undergoing extensive trial, and the results
are very favourable. Already several testimonies have been
given by medical men to its value.” Ibid.
“ Lignite——Mr. Becquerel has examined and published
an account of a'stratum of fossil wood, occurring at Auteuil,
in the neighbourhood of Paris, which seems of great extent.
It contains, interspersed here and there, succinite, and crys-
tals, supposed to be of mellite, but the exact nature of which
has not been ascertained.” “This stratum of lignite con-
tains trees, still entire in their forms, some of considerable
length, and varying in diameter from six to eighteen inch-
es,” Ibid.
Extract of a letter from Dr. Daubeny, of Oxford, ( Eng-
land,)* to his friend in this country.
_ “T spent three months,” says he, “in Auvergne and the
Vivarais, and am returned, quite convinced of the igneous
origin of the whole of that interesting country. In some
Places, the streams of lava may be traced from their waters
; ee ; diieon’ ahd
*Dr. Daubeny is a promising mineralogist, and pupil of Jam rh =
Bockland—he ss fost har from At ioe fmes thn: Evers AeTINg
- 1 Re ee SO L f Scotiand an rewanc.
Pew VIOUS:
352, _ Foreign Laterature and Science.
in the most satisfactory manner, and every where, even in
the mosi ancient volcanic rocks, there exist scoriz, and oth-
er decided igneous products, which leave no doubt of the
mode in which the whole must have been formed. Wheth-
er the trap rocks in this, (England, &c.) and other a
tries, are to be referred to the same cause, may s
doubted, but there are certainly many striking fas shoe be-
tween the products of the volcanoes of Auvergne, and the
basalts of other countries. Indeed I would defy any mine-
ralogist to distinguish the basalts of Auvergne from those of
Ireland.” Of Mr. Greenough’s map, just published, he
says, * it is the fruit of years of great labor, with the assis-
tance of Professor Buckland, and other geologists, of the
first eminence ; its price is six guineas.”
Of Dr. Mac Culloch’ s work, he says, ‘it contains a great
mass of information ; and the plates are splendid.”
Dr. Boru, of Paris, who is a highly accomplished botan-
ist, and gedlog: ist, is preparing a small work on the Geology
of Scotlan
From No. 15 of Brande’s Journal.
“ Death of M. F. de St. Fond.—Science bas lately lost M.
Faujas de St. Fond, a distinguished mineralogist and geolo-
gist. ‘He was born at Montelimart, in 1750, and died last
uly, (1819) at Soriel, near Valenci. He was Professor of
Geology to the museum of Natural History, from the time
of its establishment; he has enriched its collections by @
vast number of curious objects, the results of his researches
and travels, and France owes to him the discovery of one
of its richest iron mines. M. Faujas has published many
works on Mineralogy and Geology, as well as numerous me-
moirs in the Annales du Museum d’Histoire Naturelle. He
has left a collection of minerals, shells, and alluvial fossils,
among which are many extremely rare specimens, and 0
which the selection announces a Professor, who desired to
rest upon facts to the utmost possible.
From Tilloch’s Ph. Mag. for March.
" Preparing for publication, ‘A Mineralogical Dictionary:
comprising an alphabetical nomenclature of Mineral Synon-
&
Foreign Literature and Science. 353
‘ymes, and a description of each substance—to which is pre-
fixed an explanation of the terms used in describing exter-
characters, and the crystalline structure and forms of
minerals; illustrated by numerous plates, many relating to
ee whole to be engraved by Mr. and
Miss Lowry
“ Geological Society of London.”—From the report of
the Council, February, 1820, it appears to flourish ; the
eXertions of the members are great, and the numbers and
collection increasing ; the whole number of members, resi-
dent and foreign, four hundred and forty-two—income o
the society, £946 11d. and the expenditure £798 16s. 10d.
“The public spirit of the members has induced them to
Open a subscription, which already amounts to £600, as
the basis of a fund applicable to the Seana? of new cabi-
nets, and of the most useful books and ma
“The first part of the 5th Vol. of the’ "Deans: has been
published.
The geological map of Mr. Greenough is published ;
“the expense, it is supposed, will amount to £1700— and
has been defrayed by the voluntary subscriptions of individ-
uals, who have engaged to advance the entire sum required,
upon condition of being repaid out of the first proceeds o
the sale, while the loss will be theirs if the proceeds should
fall short of the sum advanced, and the profits, if any, will
belong to the society.” New officers, 1820, of L. G.S.
The Right Hon. Earl of Compton, President.
Most Nob. Marquis of Landsdown, F. R. 5. ;
Hon. W. T. H. F. Strangways, Vice-
Heury Thos. Colebrooke, ae F. R. S. &c. { Presidents.
John McCulloch, M. D. F. L. §
Alexander Henderson, M. D. Saveictie
Mr. Thos. Webster,
Henry Heuland, Esq. Foreign Secretary.
Daniel Moore, Esq. F. R. 8. &c. } Treasurers.
Jno. Taylor, Esq. :
‘ Dr. Brewster maintains, from a number of experimenis
$
ane their results, that amber is an indurated vegetable
jui
354 Forexgn Literature and Science.
The No. for April, 1820, mentions,
* A new Geological map of England and Wales, with
the inland navigation, &c. &c.: By Wm. Smith, Engineer,
on one large sheet, neatly coloured and shaded—Cary, St.
James-st. price 14s.”
_ Smith’s Geological Atlas, No. 3, is published by Cary.
This work exhibits on separate maps, the Geology of the
several counties of England and Wales.”
Conite.—Dr. Mac Culloch mentions in his account of the
Western Islands of Scotland, a new mineral, discovered by
him, and to which he applies the name Conite, from the
powdery form in which it occurs—he has since found it in
the Kilpatrick hills, in trap, and also in Sky—the same
name has been applied by Prof. Schumacher to a very dif-
ferent substance; but Dr. M. thinks the latter is not likely
to maintain its place in our catalogue of mineral species,
but it is peculiarly appropriate to his new substance.
“ Emerald Mines.—M. Caillaud’s account of his discov-
eries in Egypt will shortly be published in Paris. Some
time ago he discovered near Mount Zabarab, the famous
nerald mines, which were previously known only by the
iting the ancient authors, and the stories of the
—‘“ they were discovered by M. C. nearly in the
so deep that four hundred men may work in them at once-
In the mines were found cords, levers, tools of various
kinds, vases and lamps ; and the arrangement of the works
afforded every facility for studying the ancient process of
mining. M.C. himself set about working the mines, and
he has presented six pounds of emeralds to Mahomme
Ali Pashaw.”—“ On the banks of the Red Sea, the same
traveller discovered a mountain of sulphur, on which some
diggings had been made; in the neighbourhood of this
mountain traces of volcanic eruptions were observable, and
a quantity ip peers and other igneous substances was
found.” He returned last year to Paris, bringing a vast
7
Poreign Literature and Science. 355
number of drawings, &c. &c. which have been purchased
by the French government. M. C. has again set out for
Beypt.”
Dr. John Murray.
[From Tilloch’s Philosophical Magazine, July, 1820.}
“It gives us much regret to have to announce this. month
the death of that eminent chemist Dr. John Murray, of
which they every where display, and from the f ree, clear-
ness, and precision of their statements, most essentially con-
tributed to advance chemistry to the high rank which it now
holds among the liberal sciences. His very acute, vigour-
ous, and comprehensive mind, has been most successfully
exerted in arranging its numerous and daily multiplying
details, defining its laws, and, above all, in attaching to it
@ spirit of philosophical investigation, which, while it lays
the best foundation for extending its practical application,
tends at the same time to exalt its character, and dignify its
ursuit. As a lecturer on chemistry, it is impossible to
teacher was an uncommon faculty, arising from the great
perspicuity and distinctness of his conceptions, of leading
his hearers step by step through the whole process of the
most complete investigation, with such admirable clearness,
that they were induced to think that he was following out
@ natural order which could not be avoided, at the very
time when he was exhibiting a specimen of the most refin-
ed and subtle analysis. With him the student did not
merely accumulate facts, note down.dry results, or stare at
356 Foreign Literature and Science.
amusing experiments : he was led irresistibly to exercise
i mind, and trained to the habits of accurate induc-
tion. To those solid attainments which entitled Dr. Mur-
ray to stand in the first rank as a man of science, was unit-
ed arefined taste and a liberal acquaintance with every
subject of general interest in literature. His manners were
easy, polite, and unpretending, regulated by a delicate sense
of propriety, with much of that simplicity which so often
accompanies strength of character and originality of mind.
He rose to eminence by the intrinsic force of his talents ;
he was above all the second-hand arts by which so many
labour to attract attention ; and a native dignity of senti-
ment, and manly spirit of independence, kept him aloof
from all those petty intrigues which are so often employed
with success to bolster up inferior pretensions.—”
In common with all the pupils of Dr. Murray, I can feel-
ingly ~ testimony to the accuracy of the above delinea-
tion. — Edit. ‘etal
Red Snow of Baffin’s Bay.
“The nature of this substance was explained in Mr.
Bauer’s paper read before the Royal Society on the 11th
May, as noticed in a former number. In the winter he
put some of the red globules forming this substance into a
phial with compressed snow, and placed the phial in the
open air. A thaw having melted the snow, he poured off
the water and added fresh snow. In two days the mass of
fungi was found raised in little heaps, which gradually rose
higher, filling the cells of the ice. Another thaw came 00,
and the fungi fell to the bottom, but of about twice their
original bulk, They appeared capable of vegetating in wa-
ter, but in this case the globules produced were not red,
but green. The author found that excessive cold killed
the original fungi; but their seeds still retained vitality, and
if immersed in snow produced new fungi, generally of a
red colour.—Snow, then, seems to be the proper soil of
these fungi.”
Breccia of Mont D’or.
“There are found rather abundantly ina ravine of Mont
D’or, in Auvergne, fragments of a breecia, the hardness
and other external characters of which, haying led to the
i i
Foreign Laterature and Science. 357
supposition of its being of a siliceous nature, mineralogists
did not pay much attention to it, except On account ol some
particles of sulphur which it sometimes contains in small
cavities. M. Cordier, having submitted this breccia to dif-
ferent trials, found that it yielded by heat a notable propor-
tion of sulphuric acid ; and upon this important indication,
he proceeded to make a complete analysis of it, by pe
he found that this stone contained about twenty-eight
cent. of silica, twenty-seven of sulphuric acid, thirty-one of
alumine, six of potash, and a little water and iron. These
are very nearly the same ingredients as are found in the
celebrated ore of Tolfa, which yields Roman alum. In
reality, ae treating this breccia from Mont D’or in the
same manner as is practised at Tolfa, that is to say, by
Grenking i neh it, and exposing it toa moist air, from
ten to twenty per cent. of very pure alum was obtained
from it ; and this breccia even yielded alum without being
roasted, but merely by exposure in a damp situation.
* It is probable, ee: the researches made upon the spot
be decrenten: and that quarries may pests ss
working of which cannot but be of advant taba
“M. Cordier regards these sorts of stones as a minera-
logical species consisting essentially of sulphuric acid, alu-
mine, and potash. The silica found in it is not essential,
for, quarries of a stone not containing any silica, but all the
other constituent principles exist at Montrose, in Tuscany,
and yield the same products as that at Tolfa. Those vari-
eties of this species into which silica enters, are easily dis-
tinguished by the jelly they form when they ar treated in
succession with caustic potash and hiedénchlotic (muriatic)
acid diluted with water
“M, Cordier reduces to this species several volcanic
patie hitherto vaguely designated iby geologists by the
general denomination of altered Java.”
Vou. IL....No. 2. 46
358 Foreign Literature and Science.
[Fereign notices selected by the Editor.]
~ Poisons.
It is now ascertained that sugar taken in lumps is a certain
antidote for verdigris : that vinegar counteracts the danger-
ous effects of alkaline substances; and that raw albumen
(white of eggs) if administered in time, is a remedy for mer-
eury sublimate.——Tilloch’s Phil. Mag. Dec. 1819.
It may be added that vinegar counteracts the effects of
harcotics and gluten those of corrosive sublimate.
New method of grafting* Trees.
A common method of grafting, is by making a transverse
section in the bark of the stock, and a perpendicular slit be-
low it; the bud is then pushed down to give it the position
which itis to have. This method is not always successful ;
it is better to reverse it, by making the vertical slit above
the transverse section, and pushing the bud upward into its
position—a method which rarely fails of success: because
as the sap descends by the bark as has been ascertain-
ed, and does not ascend, the bud thus placed above the trans-
verse, receives abundance, but when placed below, the sap
cannot reach it—Annales de Chimie, quoted by Tilloch.
_ Phosphoric acid in Plants.
Free phosphoric acid is in all vegetable extracts and in a
great variety of vegetables. Besides the acid in combina-
tion with lime, all cultivated plants appear to contain phos-
pene saltin abundance. These facts were ascertained by
Mr. Berry, by carrying on the evaporation in vacuo.—Til-
loch. Jan. 1820.
Rectification of Alcohol.
A correspondent of the Giornale de Fisica, reports an eX-
periment which may be applied with advantage to this pul
pose. It is a well known fact that water passes with facility
through bladder, while alcohol is almost perfectly retained
by it. Ifa bottle of wine be closed by a piece of bladder
*Perhaps the method described in this article corresponds rather witb
what is, in this r PR ae pean Fe [Ep.}
Foreign Laterature and Science. 859
instead of a cork, a portion of the water will be found to
have evaporated and passed off through the membrane, and
the wine left will be found proportionably stronger. If a
bladder half filled with alcohol of the specific gravity of 867,
and having its orifice closed, be exposed to the sun, the air,
er the heat of a stove, ina short time the alcohol will be
found rectified to 817 sp. gr. and in this manner all the wa-
ter may be evaporated. If the same bladder with its con-
tents, be then exposed to a humid atmosphere (as in a damp
cellar) it will imbibe water, and return to 867 sp. gr. which
water may be again separated by hanging it in a dry place.
{in one word, the bladder is a filter, which suffers water to
pass through it but not alcohol.—Tilloch’s Phil. Mag. Jan.
1820.
Hydrophobia.
It has been discovered by the inhabitants of Gadici in
Italy, that near the ligament of the tongue of the man or an-
imal bitten by a rabid animal, and becoming rabid, pustules
of a whitish hue make their appearance, which open spon- —
taneously about the 13th day after the bite; and at this
time they say, the first symptoms of true hydrophobia make
their appearance. Their method of cure consists in open-
ing these pustules with a suitable instrument, and making
the patient spit out the ichor and fluid which run from
them, often washing the mouth with salt water. This ope-
ration should be performed the ninth day after the bite,
he remedy is so effectual, that with these people this hith-
erto incurable disease has lost its terrors. —Bibl. Ital. quoted
by Tilloch, Jan. 1820.
Thermometer.
Sanctorio invented the thermometer in 1590, but it was
not reduced to a correct standard till 1724, by Fahrenheit
ef Amsterdam.
New geometrical work.
* An introduction to solid geometry, and to the study of
crystallography, containing an investigation of some of the
360 Foreign Literature and Science.
_“ The work under consideration contains a description of a
variety of solids hitherto unnoted, and a number of new
remarkable properties of those solids that have been long
known. — In tracing the properties of the platonic bodies, the
author shows that they naturally divide themselves into two
series, each consisting of five solids ; and, what is remarka-
ble, that each individual solid, in one. of the series, is to be |
found in great abundance among crystals, whereas not a sin-
gle individual in the other series has ever been found among
such productions. The first he calls the natural, the other
the artificial series. These two series bear a strong resem--
blance to each other ; inasmuch as the last in each series
contains all the foregoing in the same series: the angular
points of the contained solids may be traced out in the sur-
face of the last solid : and what perhaps is equally remark-
able is, that the whole of the solids composing the natural
series are commensurable with each other when the first
four are contained in the last, and that they are to each oth-
er as the numbers 1, 3, 4,6 and 8. There is another solid
whose extremities may be traced out in the surface of the
ries in pairs, in every possible manner, and
of their volumes in two tables; he has likewise given the
ratios of a number of remarkable lines in or upon the solids,
and has shown how each may be extracted from the others.
The ratios between the members of the artificial series
tween the numbers of the artificial series, and likewise be-
tween their faces and their axes. The whole is illustrated
SS EY SS OS a a I ee
Ee ee ee ee) ee
}
|
Foreign Literature and Science. eee
four plates, engraved in a superior manner by Mr. and
Miss Lowry: the third plate is remarkably well executed,
and is a flattering specimen of that young lady’s abilities.
Upon the whole, the work will be found of great service to
prepare the mind for the study of crystallography, and at the
dame time highly interesting to the mathematician. In-
deed, it is the only work in the English language in which
_ the various properties of the geometrical solids are particu-
larly described ; on which account it cannot fail to be ac-
ceptable.” ,
[A copy of this work has been presented to us by Profes-
sor Coxe, of Philadelphia; it is beautifully executed, and
we were intending to publish an original notice of it till we
met with the above in Tilloch’s Philadelphia Magazine for
January, 1820, to which we are happy in the opportunity
of giving additional sirtladini Raa sn
Latent heat of Vapours.
According to the experiments of Dr. Ure, of Glasgow.
the latent heat o 3 :
Steam, is Pe - 967.000
Alcohol, - - - 442.000
Sulphuric ether, - - 302.379
Naptha, - - - 177.870
Oil of turpentine, - - 177.870
Nitric acid, sp. gr. 1.494, 531.999
Ammonia, sp. gr. 0.978, - 837.280
Vinegar, sp. gr. 1.007, - 875.000 —
Boiling point of Liquids.
Water does not boil equally in a glass vessel; the tem-
perature rises a degree or two above the regular boiling
point, when a torrent of steam rushes up through it and
the temperature sinks a little: this continues through the
whole ebullition, and the temperature vibrates between two
points, distant, two or three degrees from one another. This
variation is more remarkable, and may be even dangerous,
when sulphuric acid is distilled. If a few slips of platinum
or of any other wire be put into the fluid, the water boils
regularly as it does in a metallic vessel.—Annales de Chi-
mie, &c. Vol. 8. p. 406.
362 Foreign Laterature and Science..
Chlorine theory.
M. Vogel, of Munich, treated phosphoric acid and mu
riate of barytes separately, each ma platinum crucible, then
they were heated together in a platinum tube, and abund-
ance of muriatic acid gas was obtained: the same results
were obtained with muriate of tin and muriate of manga-
nese, and in a less degree with muriate of silver. Borane
acid also with the alkaline muriates gave similar results.
These experiments are directly contrary to those of Davy
and of Gay Lussac, and Thenard, and if correct, cannot be
explained upon the new theory of chlorine. —Thomson’s
Annals, Historical Sketch for 1818.
Dr. Thomson’s method of taking the sp. gr. of the gases.
This method is founded on the well known fact that when
two gases are mixed their bulk does not alter. Provide a
large flask with a stop cock ; weigh, exhaust, sone _
the difference is the weight of the common air
Let it be expressed by a. Then introduce a gas to oe
weighed, taking care first to exhaust the stop cocks connect-
ed with the apparatus, the volume of the gas which enters
will be equal to that of the air withdrawn. Now weigh the
flask ; the increase of weight above the weight of the ex-
hausted flask is the weight of the gas introduced ; this may
be expressed by b. The specific gravity of the gas is
=- * without any correction for volume, as affected by heat
or pressure.
f the gas is mixed with common air, determine the pro-
portion, mid then deduce the specific gravity of the pure
gas by a very simple calculation. Let
: =specific gravity of the pure gas.
~Azsthe volume of air in the mixture.
asthe sp. gr. of air.
~ B=volume of pure gas present.
sta gr. of the mixed gas. Then
(A+B
¥ os
B
Thomson’s Annals, March, 1820.
i
\
H
;
4
Foreign Laterature and Science. 363
Tode.
_ It appears from the experiments of Mr. Fife, of Edin-
burgh, and of M. Gaultier de Claubry, that lode exists in
sponges although in very small quantity: it is obtained both
before and after incineration.—Annales de Chimie, &c.
March, 1820.
Peaches growing on an Almond tree.
Mr. Thomas Richard Knight, long known by his great
knowledge and success in horticultural pursuits, has obtain-
ed peaches from a sweet almond tree. ne tree grew in a
pot which contained about one square foot of earth, and was
impregnated by the pollen of the peach. It produced nine
peaches, the first fruit that it had borne ; three opened in
the manner of almonds and died, the other six had all the
characters of the peach. Mr. Knight is of opinion that the
peach and almond are originally the same species, and that
an almond tree, may, by cultivation, become after a good
many generations, a peach tree.—Annales de Chimie, &c.
Mar. 1820. ms
A new Metal, (Aurum Millium.)
A letter from London to a gentleman in Baltimore, an-
nounces the discovery of a new metal by Mr. Mills. The
writer describes the “ aurum millium (as it is called) as re-
Sembling gold in colour ; very durable, and malleable, and
not expensive, the price being 4s. a 4s. 6d. pounce. It is
hard and sonorous, has the invaluable property of not easily
tarnishing, and is nearly as heavy. as common jeweller’s
gold.” | ;
Systema Algarum.
Professor Agardh, of the University of Lund, in Swe-
den, announces that he is preparing for publication a Syste-
rum, that will comprehend the disposition and de-
Seription of all the known species of cryptogamous water
plants orrey. : :
—Dr. T
364 Foreign Literature and Science.
Astronomical Society of London.
‘Since the publication of the last number of this Journal,
the following communication has been reeeived. We cheer-
fully give it publicity, both from a disposition to promote
the great object in view, and from sentiments of person:
respect towards the individual whose signature is attached
to the letter.
‘‘ Lonpon, March 10, 1820.
Prorrssor Sinton, :
Sir,
Having been requested by some friends to the Astro-
nomical Society to send some of their plans and regulations
to the public societies in America, and persons there who
might be disposed to take an interest in this branch of
knowledge, I with pleasure comply with their wishes in
requesting your acceptance of the enclosed plan, hoping
that its landable object may meet with encouragement and
communications. From the attention that has been paid to
astronomy in America, and its great importance as an ob-
ject of utility, I hope great benefits may arise from collect-
ing and circulating knowledge in this branch of science,
and that it may tend to facilitate our mutual intercourse,
and promote the happiness and security of mankind.
I have Pa honour to subscribe myself,
- Sir,
}
With the above letter, we received the address and con-
wd *
the heavens without the assistance of a DoLLonD, a Cary,
or a TroveuTon ; and the skill of these last can scarcely
Foreign Literature and Science. 365
be acquired without producing in priersine serious advan-
ces in science as well as in manual dext
The objects of the society are thus mneatiovid in their
address—“ the perfecting of our knowledge of the latitudes
and longitudes of places in every region of the globe; the
improvement of the lunar theory, and that of the figure of
the earth, by occultations, appulses, and eclipses, simulta-
neously observed in different situations ; the advancement
of our knowledge of the laws of atmospherical refraction in
different climates, by corresponding egies of the
fixed stars ; the means of determining more correctly the
orbits of comets, by observations made in the most distant
parts of the world; and in general the frequent opportuni-
ties afforded to a society holding an extensive correspon-
dence of amassing materials, which (though separately of
small importance) may by their union become not only
interesting at the present ‘ithe, but also valuable as subjects
of reference in future.” The society, in the conclusion of
their address, sum up their views as follows: to encourage
and promote their peculiar science by every means in their
power, but especially by collecting, reducing and publishing
useful observations and tables; by setting on foot a minute
and systematic examination of the heavens; by encourag-
ing a general spirit of enquiry in practical astronomy;
by establishing communications with foreign observers ;
circulating notice of all remarkable phenomena about to
happen and of discoveries as they arise ; by comparing the
merits of different artists eminent in the construction of as-
tronomical instruments; by proposing prizes for the im-
provement of particular departments and estowing medals
-or rewards on successful research in all ; and finally by act-
ing as far as possible, in concert with every institution, both
in England and abroad, whose objects have any thing in
common with their own; but avoiding all interference with
the objects and interests of established scientific bodies.
Extract of a letter to the a from a gentleman in Glas-
gow
Our streets and shops are now lighted ~~ gas, which is
here, as every where else, found to be a most important
improvement. New streets, almost w ithoait number, have
—— begun, 5 Pag erase rapidly. In George’s
II...,.No. 2.
366 Dowmestie Intelligence.
square, a bronze statue of Sir John Moore, by Flaxman, of
London, has just been erected ; and a proposal has been
afloat for some time, to erect a monument, of some kind or
been made of one also to the memory of Watt, the im-
prover of the steam engine, whose death you will have seen
announced by the time this reaches you ; he was a native of
lasgow.
I found on my arrival a Columbian Press at work. Cly-
mer, the inventor, is in London, and has supplied a consid-
erable number of them to the printers, who think the Ameri-
can are superior to any others, in ease of workmanship,
and fineness of the work produced. Presses of every kind,
however, will, in all probability, have to give way soon be-
fore a printing machine, which has been almost perfected in
ndon, and performs about the work of six presses, with a
man and a boy to put on and take off the sheets, and work
“the machine. It operates by a combination of cylinders,
and can be driven by a steam engine, or any other moving
. It promises to effect a complete revolution in the
art of printing.
Bou
DOMESTIC INTELLIGENCE.
Abstract of the proceedings of the Lyceum of Natural His-
tory, New-York.
Domestic Intelligence, S87
tedon the lateral edges, forming nine-sided prisms. Some-
times the lateral planes are nearly destitute of stria, though
the faces of the acumination are always smooth and splen-
nt. They vary from translucent to semi-transparent.
Lustre sal fracture imperfectly conchoidal, and fine
grained, une Fuses before the blowpipe. By friction
the crystals exhibit positive electricity—heat did not excite
any. Sp. gr. 3.05. Geometrical characters. Angle form-
ed by the planes of the original prism 150°. Angle of the
bevelling planes 120°. Angle formed by the planes of the
original | prism, and the acuminating planes 118° 30’. An-
gle formed by two of the acuminating planes 132°. These
ambega ci a agree almost precisely with the Tourmaline
isogone of Hatiy. Mr. P. is of opinion that the subspecies
Rubellite is not suficienty distinct from red tourmaline to
deserve a distinct name, as its only essential character
seems to be its infusibilty. The Rubellite of Chesterfield,
however, is unifarmly infusible, though it is frequently per-
feetly inerusted in crystals of common green tourmaline.
The Geognostic situation of the red tourmaline of Kings-
bridge, is somewhat uccommon. Schorl seldom occurs in
limestone, though the Rag variety is said to occur in the
limestone of St. Gothard.
Dr. Torrey demonstrated the anatomy of the Scyllea
pelagica of Lin. and which has been so accurately describ-
ed and figured by Cuvier in Anat. des Mollusques. There
ad been so much confusion respecting this animal in the
works of all authors preceding Cuvier, that some zoologists
have denied its existence. The principal cause of this was,
that Seba, who first figured it, mistook the abdomen for the
back. The specimens examined by Dr. T. were taken in
the Gulf stream, on the Fucus natans.
ie. Townsend ccad a continuation of his observations on
oe varieties of crystallized snow, observed near
York. His former paper is published’ in the Ackifiaan
Monthly Magazine.
_ Mr. Pierce read a memoir on the ae 8 and geolo-
gy of the secondary region of New-Jersey, and presented
many interesting minerals from localities not hitherto ne+
>
368 Domestic Intelligence.
ticed 5 amnegE which were, beautiful specimens of prehnite,
fi ewark, second mountains, Scotch plains, &c. imbed-
ded in D eecciastars. Some were almost of an emerald
green. brous zeolite, from Pee: associated with
greenstone. White stilbite, in compressed four-sided
prisms, acuminated by four planes. These crystals were
attached to prehnite, which was traversed by crystals of
zeolite, from Seaiek plains ; fibrous malachite, from Schuy-
ler’s mine, New-letsey:s 3 compact peat, from the vicinity of
Elizabethtown.
Dr. Torrey read an analysis of the fibrous sulphate of ba
rytes, lately found at Carlisle, Schoharie county, N.Y.
first public account of this mineral appeared in the en
Gazette, Nov. 14, 1818, when it was announced as celestine
or fibrous sulphate of strontian, though it had been known,
and had circulation a year or two before. Dr. Torrey dis-
pa. the mistake soon after, though his analysis was not
te until February, 1819. This mineral so much re-
i a sulphate of strontian, that the mistake was natural.
Its real nature however is very apparent when subjected to
a few chemical experiments, especially when the sp. gravity
is ascertained (4.320.) The fibrous sulphate of barytes an-
alyzed by Klaproth (Analy. Essays, 2. p. 227) appears to
be a very different variety from the mineral in question, and
a very new variety should receive a name, we may retain
that given to it by Mr. Eaton. The very remarkable char-
acter of the Carslile mineral is, that it does not decrepitate
in the least before the blowpipe.
As an analysis of this mineral, which agrees very nearly
with that of Dr. T. has been lately published by Professor
McNeven, of New-York, it will hardly be necessary to
make any ‘further remarks on this subject. [For its geolo-
gical situation, &c. see No. 5 of this Journal.—Ep. |
Mr. Pierce communicated a well characterized specimen
of fe which he found in considerable quantities near
Weekawken, New-Jer ersey. This substance resulted from
the decomposition of a secondary stratum, consisting of
feldspar and quartz undeilying greenstone. It was slightly
fused by a blowpipe heat, in which it differs from the kao-
lin of France. This circumstance is probably owing to the .
oy a
Domestic Intelligence. 369
potash of the feldspar not being entirely separated. It oc-
curs in sufficient quantities to be used in the manufacture of
lai
porcelain.
Oct.—Dr. Torrey read an analysis of a mineral dis-
covered at Patterson, N. J. by Mr. Pierce. This sub-
stance had been taken for prehnite, until the analysis of
Dr. T. ascertained it to be the datholite, or silicious borate
of lime. This rare mineral had heretofore been found only
Norway, analyzed by Klaproth, and it may prove to be a
new variety.
ungus ; and it has hardly been noticed by any succeeding
ton, communicated to the New-York Philosophical Society
an account of this very singular production,” in which he
maintained that it was a real fungus which was attached to
the roots of living trees, and not as it been contended,
Mage: abstract of this paper is published in the Ist Vo! ~of the Amer. Mon
370 Domestic Intelligence.
the root of a convolvulus or any other pliant. ‘The tuckahoe
occurs from one to three feet under the surface of the earth.
Its form is for the most part globular, and it is found from
the sizeof an acorn to the bigness of a man’s head. Dr.
T. has ascertained that the tuckahoe belongs to the genus
sclerotium of T’ode and Person, and that it is an undescribed
species of that genus which he calls S. gigantewm. Dr.
Macbride supposed that the substance of the sclerotium con-
sisted of gluten in a peculiar state. Dr. 'T. in an elaborate
the solution gelatinizes by acids and most neutral salts.
ley’s mountain, New-Jersey. It somewhat resembles
graphite, but is much heavier and possesses very different
characters. According to Dr. 'T’s analysis it consists of iron
in a metallic state, and graphite, in the proportion of 54.25
of the former, and 11.50 of the latter. He proposes for it
the name of siderographite.
Dr. Torrey sead an account of a new mineral from Schoo-
New-J
1819.—Mr. I. P. Brace, a corresponding member of the
Society, communicated a memoir on the geology and min-
eralogy of Litchfield in Connecticut, which he illustrated
with a handsome suite of specimens. Litchfield is entirely
primitive, and the basis rock of all the hills is gneiss, though
granite is occasionally found alternating with it. The rocks
lying on this are porphyritic granite, mica slate, sienite,
primitive greenstone, steatite and limestone. Mount Pros-
per, near the west end of the town, is entirely composed ©
porphyritic granite. Mount Tom, south west of the tow”,
appears to be composed of rocks of sienite heaped together
on a base of this granite. Among the minerals sent by Mr-
Brace, were large and beautiful crystals of eyanite associa
ted with tale and mica slate, staurotide with garnets, in mica
slate, chalcedony, blue feldspar, and beryls in large crystals
in_ granite.
interesting species of fish, viz: Gobiomones grandicauda,
Bodianns triacanthus. Esox- eirrhatus, Diodon «verrucosus,
A memoir was read by. the president, Dr. Mitchill, on an
nalhahiy
i
i
i
i
Domestic Intelligence. 371
Squalus squatina and Saccopharynx flaggellum. All these
are found in our waters, and form a valuable addition to our
icthyological catalogue. Of these the S. flagellum is the
most interesting. This species is six feet in length, the
body and head being but fourteen inches. In the shape
and structure of the body it differed so much from every
fish hitherto known, that some doubt was at first entertained
whether it actually did belong to that class. This however
was fully established by the learned president. By means
ofa particular structure, not easily understood except from
actual inspection, the animal is able to dilate his mouth to
an astonishing extent; from this and the whip-like appear-
ance of his tail, he has derived his generic and specific
names. The body i is round, cylindrical, scaleless; dorsal,
anal and caudal fins united. Belongs to the order Cartila-
gine. A particular anatomical description of this i interesting
animal is much wanted.
Dr. Townsend read a memoir on the organic remains at
Corlaer’s Hook, in the environs of New-York. Part 1s
Milleporites, with drawings and specimens. “These are
found in a bank of alluvial sand, resting immediately on the
primitive rock of the Island. Dr. 'T. described two species
and four varieties of ramose millepores. Most of the speci-
mens found belong to these species. The division ramose
found it necessary to establish, although it approaches
the millepora truncata of Ellis. Of reticulated millepores he
describes one species. The great abundance of these re-_
mains serves to refute the opinion of Parkinson, (Vol. 2. p.
71.) that there are few millepores in a fossil state. The sub-
stance of these specimens is alumino-silicious.
N. Paulding read a memoir upon marine fossil
Arlls, found in great abundance in every part of Prince
eorge’s county, A ae. and presented to the society by
1. W. Philip, U.S. A. They belong to the genus pectun-
culus, turritelea, arca, murex and teredo of authors.
Many valuable donations have been received by the Ly-
ceum, among which we have only time to enumerate the
following : :
372 Domestic Intelligence.
A valuable collection of insects, consisting of five hundred
and twenty-five specimens, chiefly of the orders coleoptua
and lepidoplua, from Professor Zincken Sommer, physician
to the court of Brunswick.
Specimens of minerals from Col. G. Gibbs, among which
were native gold from Siberia, fluate of lime from New-Jer-
sey, and granular corundum from Naxos.
Organic remains from Werberg, near the Weser in Ger-
many, from Rev. F. Schaeffer.
Numerous minerals from Professor Geimar, of Halle,
with a catalogue.
Organic remains, consisting of vertebrae of fish and ceta- —
cea, bivalves and recent bones of some unknown animal,
from Dr. William Swift. :
Hortus cryptogamicus Edinensis No. 1, an herbarium of
eryptogamic plants, growing near Edinburgh, (Scotland)
presented by J. Stewart, lecturer on botany in that city.
_ Specimens beautifully prepared of the anas acuta, oF
pintail duck, (Wilson) by the late Mr. Clements.
‘Organic remains from’ Corlaer’s Hook, and a specimen
supposed to be oolite, never before discovered in this coun-
try, by Mr. Cozzens.
Valuable collection of American minerals, among which
radiated zeolite, from Westchester, &c. by W. R. Clapp,
corresponding member.
[It is feared that, owing to the illegibility of the MS. some
errors may have crept into the above “ abstract.”—Ep.]
American Geological Society.
The anniversary meeting was held in the cabinet of Yale
College ; and the officers of the last year were re-elected,
with the exception of Mr. T. D. Porter, who, in conse-
quence of removal to a distant state, resigned the office of
Secretary, and Dr. Alfred S. Monson, of New-Haven, was
elected in his stead. '
«
Domestic Intelligence. 37S
The society directed that an appropriate address should
be delivered by a member at the next anniversary. The
case ordered to be constructed, to receive the commencing
eollection of the society, is finished, and in a good measure
filled. A box of specimens has been presented by Colonel
Gibbs; and another is announced as being on its way from
essor Dewey, of Williamstown.
A letter has recently been received by one of the Vice-
Presidents, from William Maclure, Esq. President of the
society, dated at Paris, in August, informing that a collec-
tion of books,* and two boxes of foreign specimens, col-
lected by Mr. Maclure, during his travels in Europe, had
been shipped for the society, and that another box of rock
tion of Albany county, and is illustrative of the mine
and geology of that district.
Pharmaceutical preparations.
a
Dr. Thomas Huntington, of New-London, is engaged in
mitted to us, we cannot doubt that he is entitled to the con-
fidence of the medical faculty, and to that of the public.—
Among his preparations we notice the precipitated carbonat
of iron, the green sulphate of the same metal, and the sul-
phate of zinc, and the muriat of barytes. We understand
that he will prepare the phosphat of iron, and that he will
occupy himself particularly with the formation of extracts,
such as that of cicuta, &c.
Sulphate of Barytes.
We have received from Dr. Comstock, of Hartford, some
handsome specimens of sulphate of barytes, penetrated by
. Perceived from the catalogue to be very valnable.
Vor. If.....No. 2. 48
=
374. Domestic Intelligence.
green and blue carbonat of copper, in beautiful contrast
with the white of the barytes.
he sulphate of barytes forms a vein of five or six inches
thick, in greenstone trap, which — on an ri aus 7
sandstone, two miles from Hartford.
Carbonat of Barytes.
Professor Rafinesque, in ina letter to Dr. Torrey, of New-
fork, announces the overy of large quantities of the
carbonat of barytes, near be hensbinons in Kentucky. We
shall wait with much interest for a confirmation of this very
angoresting observation.—[ Ed. ]
Comet of 1819.
We have just received a part of the [Vth Vol. of the
iwansactions of the American Academy of Arts and Scien-
ces, now printing, which contains a memoir on the orbit of
this comet, by Professor A. M. Fisher, of Yale College.
The elements of the orbit, as corrected by the method of
Laplace} are stated as follows :
Perihelion’ distance, 3366878
Time of passi ng the perihelion; Sune 27th, ri 56m. 285.
Mean time at —— aoe
Inclination of the - 80°. 56! 17”
Longitude of the etic en St 273° SP 184.
Place of the perihelion, - ~ —- 286°.21'.33"
Motion direct.
Oxid of Manganese, and “Chremat of Iron.
Mr. E. Hitchcock has shewn us specimens of oxid of man-
ganese from Deerfiel ld and Leverett, and he informs us that
chromat of iron has been found in Cummington, Mass.
twenty miles N. W. of Northampton. There is said to be
@ mine of manganese in Greenup county, Kentucky.
Domestic Intelligence. 376
Cylinders of Snow.
Extract of a letter from Mr. E. Hitchcock to the Editor.
The Rev. Mr. Clark’s account in vol. 2, p. 132 of the
Journal, of the singular effect of wind upon a light snow in
New-Jersey, whereby cylinders were formed having coni-
eal hollows at each end, bro ught to my recollection a simi-
lar fact, which I oimerved in. Deerfield, Mass. about the
year 1812 or 13. I measured the cylinders at the time
and minuted the circumstances, but mislaid the account and
cannot now find it. The circumstances attending the phe-
nomenon were, however, very similar to those mentioned
by Mr. Clark, " except that the ground where the cylinders
formed was nearly level, and none of them were more than
six or eight inches in diameter. The time of this curious
play among the elements, was in the night or early in the
morning.
Cleaveland’s Mineralogy.
A second edition of Professor Cleaveland’s Mineralogy
is now in the press. We are informed that it will contain
able additions, communicated by mineralogists
States. An appendix will, if necessary, be
bracing any new facts which may occur during
the peeing of the work..
Sulphate of Magnesia,
Has been found by Professor ate and Dr. T. R. Beck
about sixteen miles west of Alban
“Hudson Association for improvement in Science.
Extract from a letter to the Editor, dated May 22, 1820,
and signed by Austin Abbott, Corresponding Secretary.
In consequence of the lectures given here last summer by
r. Eaton, an institution has been recently formed in this
city, for the purpose of studying the sciences of Chemistry,
Geology, Mineralogy and Botany. We have already made
376 Domestre Intelligence.
a handsome collection of mineralogical specimens, although
it is but little more than six months since our society was in-
stituted. We have communication with the Troy Lyceum,
and with gentlemen of science throughout the state of New-
York, and have a very flattering prospect of making our
cabinet respectable in a short time. The neighbourhood
of the city of Hudson is interesting on account of the organ-
ic relics which are found in it. It is from this source we
ope to derive some advantage, by exchanging our speci-
mens for those of other places.
There is no doubt of the existence of gypsum, in Ancram,
in this county.
[Omitted in its place.]
Fluorie acid in Mica.
Mr. Rose of Berlin, has lately examined in the Labra-
tory of Professor Berzelius, at Stockholm, several varieties
of mica, and among them a specimen of the rose mica from
Goshen, Mass. sent to Sweden by Col. Gibbs. In all he
found more or less fluoric acid. 3
—-waa—-
REMARK.
e
he transactions of the American Antiquari ciety,
and particularly the researches of Mr. Caleb Atwater, (con-
tained in them) on the antiquities of the West, are said, by
our literary friends, to be very interesting and instructive.
The papers on Prussic acid, on the hydraulic lime, on
Mr. Coates’ electrical battery, and several others, which
had been arranged for this number, are unavoidably omitted
ull the next.
INDEX,
Acer eriocarpum, 258—Saccharinum, 259
Ac at Mg be 349—phosphoric, 358—prussic, 81, 93—pyrolig-
pelt 343
Mesyiniie, 8
Adularia, 238, 239, 240
Adventures up ! Mount este 9
Agates of Woodbury, 2
Africa, education in, ns 350
Alcohol, rectification of, 358
Algarum, systema, 364.
Alexandria its canal, 347
, 207
Animals, new mode of killing, 341
American cinnabar, 170
American Geological Society, 139, 872
American Verd Antique marble, 165
Amethyst of New-Jersey, 191
mmonites, 44
Architectural remains in limestone, 146
Argillaceous slate, 248
Ascent of Mount Blanc, 1
a _ Atmospheric dust, 134
Atwater, Caleb, on Bones and Shells, 242
Augite, white, 238
Autumn, indications respecting, from flowers, 255
B.
Baculites, genus, 4
Banks, Sir Joseph, his ee on the sea-serpent, 164
Bar iron, manufactory of, 298
Barytes, fibrous sulphate of, 173, 368—sul phate of 241, 373—iu-
siou of, 292—carbonat of 374
Biaclow. Jacob, Pr ‘ide on Senn
Bigsby, John ae on environs of Getting: Bridge, &e. 250
‘Bitter s
ete of Prof. Ha Sta esa 297
Bohea tea, cultivated in France
Bones in red sandstone, “fr aia 242——of mastodon, 245
Botany, medical, 45
Bourn, A. on prairies and barrens, 30
ou. IF..,..No. 2 49
378 INDEX.
Bournon, Count, on architectural remains in limestone, 14@
Brace, J. P. on Litchfield county, 370
Braconnot, his experiments, 34
Bradford, A. on ken-serpent, 150
Breccia of Mont D’ r, 3 356
Brogniart, M. his opinion of the American green marble, 165
Brown, Dr. Samuel, on Animal poison, 168
Brown: spar, 23
Bubbles blown in melted rosin, 179
Bushnel, David, his submarine ne 94
Cabot, Samuel, on sea-serpent, 161
Cabinet, mineral, ht
Cadiz, its academy, 34
Calendar, floral, = Deerfield, 2
30 ane Hare, s16air Professor Green, 332
Calyptroea, costae
Cantharidin in the Lyi Vittala, a
Carthage Bridge, environs of, 250
Cashmeer goat, 347
Catenipora. genus, 34
Cement for stone houses, 224
mouny, vale of, 1
Chemistry, medical, 81
Chené, oriental, 265
Chlorine theory, 362
Chlorite slate, 247 nS =
pep aro American, 141
Pe)
Cc
shrysoberyl, its Tocality, 240
Cinnabar, American, 170
Clark, Professor E. D. strictures on, 281
Clark, Daniel, Rev. on snow and hail, 132
Aaous, 45 to 51
Cleaveland’s mineralogy, 375.
Clove, stony, 2
Clymer, Mr. bie hydraulic sitehind, 345
Cold, efiects of, 17
Colamn of ice 22
Combustion of the metals, (note,) 296
Comet of 1819, elements oni its orbit, 374
Conite, 3
Constitution of American Geological Society, 139
Constructions, geometrical, 2
Cooley, Dennis, Dr. be floral calendar, 254
Corfu, university o'
Cornelius, E. Rev. on a ma singularly posited rock, 2
vorrespondent, German,
Catundast, fusion of, 291
a
» ,
INDEX. : 379
Jrabtree, Eleazar, on sea-serpent, 154
Crystallization of, a oor
Crystals of quart
Cummings, A Abt’n m. on sea-serpent,
Cutbush, Dr. James, his electrical finn See
Dana, J. F. Dr. on or a 137—localities, 4}.
Daubeny, Dr. his remarks,
Datholite of New-Jersey, i91,3 369
Demonstrations, mathematical, 266
Dentalium, 44
eaten Professor, localities of sae hinge 296
Geological section, 246
Floral indications of autumn, 255
Diamond hill, 13
Dictionary, mineralogical, 3
Differential thermometer of i Howard, 327
Doolittle, foal on steam-engine, 101
Dry rot
Dust, ethoariicak remarks on,
Dwight, Henry E. his remarks on ee Kattskill mountains, 11
Earths, indications of their reduction,
Eaton, Amos, Professor, aod sulphate of barytes, 174
calities of minerals, 238
Edinburgh, its —. of arts, 8
Electrical lamp, 330, 3
Emmons, E. locality of serpentine, 236—and of wavellite ? 249
Emerald mines, 354
Engravings, mode of altering the size of 342 |
Entrocites, 3
Erie, lake, epee on its shores, 170
Eriocarpum, (a (acer) 25
Ether, nitrous, new process for, 326 \
Eudiometers, ee by Professor Hare, 312
Exogyra, genus, 43
Expedition, wR, 178
Facts, curious geological, 144
arey, John, on musical ‘intervals, 65
ng Cheever, 159
Fluor spar, 141—f etid, 176
Fond pa hae de St. his i 352
oot, . e ed ; ee wats .
ossil Sika
Franklinite, Peale of, 323
Furnaces for iron, 209, 212
380 INDEX.
Gardens, botanical, in Austria, 340
Garnets, 141, 240
Gases, analysis of, 314—mode of weighing, 362
Gelatinous meteor, 335
Geological observers, American, advice to,
society, American, 139—En alich, 255
Geometry, new work on its solids, 359
German correspondent, 178
Gibbs, George, on dry rot, 114—donations to Geol. Soc. 142
Glasgew, improvements in, 3
Gneiss, excellent quarry of, eri eateniions of, 240
Gold, combustion of, 295-——fulminating, 35
Granite, graphic, 141, 203, 240—granite an gneiss, 204, 206
ranite rock, singular ‘ eaaetes of, 200
Grape seed, its oil, 3
Graphite, 240
Graves, Rufus, on a meteor, 335
Gray wacke
n, Jac ob, Prof, his ee lamp, 330
Giicens of Woodbur
Griscom, Prof. foreign whan and science, 340
Griswold, Charles, on submarine navigation, 94
H.
Hail and snow, 132
Hare, Robert, Prof. on light, &c. 172
is blowpipe, 281
new eudiometers, 312
new process for nitrous ether, 326
Harmonics, 65
Heat and light, = on, 118,
Heat in the moon’s rays, Dr: Howard, discovers, 329
Homer’s iad, se copy of, 3
Hop, enquiry Na by Dr. 3 W. Ives, 302
Houses, stone, 220
d, Dr. ascends mount Blane, 1
his creer dictaancospes; 327
Hudson association, 37
Humulus seta
= town of, on ‘i ee 27
Hydrophobia, mode of cure, 3.
fce, column of, 22 :
ees foreign, Sia 7 n sponge, ses
Iron ore of Salisbury, 212—of Ken t, 216—spathie 226—sand,
238—vessel on the Clyde, 346—Chromat of 374
Italy, its Sng 346 -
Ives, Ansel -on the hop, xi
Jesup, Augustus E. 176
et a ea ee ee ee
Se a ee
INDEX.
ate M. his Revue is a 164 -
Junctions of rocks near New-Have
K.
Kaatskill pesca 3 2 pag oe 11
Kaaterskill, 16, 17, ee 21
Kaolin of New-Jersey, 368
Kidd, Prof. 165
Lakes
Bae: eran fluor spar, found by him, 142
Lamp for inflammable air, 330, 382
Lavoisier, 284
Lead, native American, 170
Lee, Lara, his submarine peters ats 94
Leipsic fa
Letters a J ournals of London and Paris, 346
Libraries of Prussia and Germany,
Light, means of producing, by Prof. Hare, 172
rene: —- — of, 3
Lignite, 3 spore: primitive, 211
Lime, shea to niet it, 2
Liquids, boiling point of, 361
Lithography, 341, 346, 348
Little, George, Captain 158
Litchfield hill, 2
Localities of satnersléy® 236
oe John, Dr. on river maple, 258
w Countries, their eaoaeed 344
St of the hop, 309, 3
Lytta vittata, 13
Lyceum of New-York, abstract of its proceedings, 366
donations to 372
Ee
M.
Maclure, William, 231
ee Sand hea Pref. 174
McLean, on sea = 154 . Madrepores, 18
Magendie, F. D. on prussic acid, 81 .
Magnesia, attempts to fuse it, 290
sulphat of, 375
anganese, oxid of, 374
Manganesian oxid of zinc, analysis of, 319
Manuscripts of Herculaneum, 340
Map, geological of England, 142
of mountains, 168
Maple, river, sugar manufactured from, 258
Marble, American green, 165
white, primitive, 211, 222
381
382 INDEX.
Mastodon, bones aud teeth of, 245
6
edusz, pentacrinus Caput,
ent) its compounds, sec See on, 350
Merm
Metal, new, 363
Meteor, gelatinous, 33 335
Mica, EPS vec of, 2
Mica slat
Michigan fom cinnabar on its shores, 170
Mine hill, 226 Mink pot, 24
Mitbcill, $: L. Prof. on fish, 370
M red, wo prussic acid
Moon, heat in rays of, 3
Morey, Samuel, his as engine, 1
on rosin bubbles, 179
Murray, Joho, Dr. obituary notice of,355
Naptha, supposed to be ina quartz crystal, 14 :
Navigation, submarine, 94
New- Milford, 225
New-York, and age min. and geol. of, parts of, 183
New-Preston, 2
Nitrous ether, new process for, 326
of American Geological Society, 141
Oil a oriental Cheng, 264
Ores of zinc, analysis of, 319
Olmstead, Prof. D. on red sandstone, 175—on temperature, 180
Ostrea genus, 42
P.
Pantopidan’s account of sea serpent, 163
Paris supplied with hot water, 341
Pauldi 37
ng, N. ons
Peaches on an almond tree, 363 o
Pentremite genus, 36
Perkins, Thomas, 117 “
. torta, 38
Petrifactions of the enki 13
Saat S, transparent,
Pierce, James, on mpoced a New-York and New-Jersey, 181
; Pillars, granite rock manpeeted ah 3 200
Prisolite, 238
a, a ovalis, 39
horescence of fluor nee 142
Pome a of seasons, 2
Plate for Hare’s blowpipe, 93 pastas a of, 298
udiometers, &c. 317
an
INDEX. 383
Platinum, combustion of, 295
Plumose mica, 141
Plumbago, 238, 241
Pvison, animal, 168—antidotes, 358
Potatoe fly, cantharidin in 137
Porter, T. D. c onttibation to Geol. Soc. 143
on snow Crystals, 339
Prairies and Barrens of a est, 30
Prehnite of New-Jersey, 1 232
Prepara tions, simrneccatial 373
Primitive limestone in mica slate, 211
Saal geal ee of the hop, 307
rince, James, on sea serpent, 157
Problems, marbensicaiks 54, 266
Prussic aci
Purple of Cassius, new mode of preparing, 350
Quartz crystals with water, 14
Rafinesque, reply to, 134 Rattle snakes, 229 ‘
Red sandstone of North-Carolina, 175. ~~ Remilla Americana, 35
Revue Encyclopedique, 1 Rhinoceros, fossil bones of, 145
Rochester, town of, 252 Rocks, succession of, 235
omanzow, Count, his expedition, 34:
Rosin, bubbles blown in, 1 Rot, dry, 11
Rubellite of Kingsbridge, 367 Ruby, fusion of, 292
ush, Dr. on sugar of the maple, 261 Rye, ergot of, 45
Salisbury iron ores, 213 Sandstone of New-Jersey, 190
Sappar, 141—fusion of, 291
at the mouth of the Genesee River, 251
Screws, manufactory of, 208
Serpent of the sea, documents respecting, 147
eripestine of Middlefield, 23
Shells, known and unknawa, 244 Shrubs on the Kaatskills, 26
Sidesis graphite, 176, 370 Silex, fusion of, 292
Silliman, B. on Prussic acid, 8
. Soc. 201
experiments with gas blow pipe, 282
Simplon, wad of, 1 Skeletons, human, ancient, in- Obi, 243
Slate and sandstone, 15—chlorite, a te tren neers 248
“ss ocks, primitive, 203 Snow and bail, 13
Spar, bitter, 236 a at ian
team engine of Morey, 101, 106, 112
384 INDEX.
Steam navigation, 342, 347 aor natural, 228
- $teinhaver, Rev. H. his remarks, 23
Stickney, B. F’. on native — and iiabes, 170
Strata at "Carthage Bridge, 2
Strong, Theodore, Prof. his ss Ae 266
Strontites, fusion of, 295. Stromnite, 177
r, manufacture “of, 258
Sullivan, on the steam engine, 106
Sweden, its population, 347 e Scyllea pelagica, 367
Taconick Range, 246 Talc, green, 236
‘eet th of the Mastodon, 245
errubratula genus, 43—pennata, 244
mometer, differential, Dr. Hoeatae
*homson, Dr. 284 PF congas from Vireinia, 145
rorrey, Dr. 173, 176,
Tour in New-Haven 98 Litchfield Counties, 201
Pourmalin, 239—radiat
Townsend, Dr. P. 8. 339, ‘S71
Traell, Dr. 177 Trees of the Kaatskills, 24
Trap of New-Haven, 202—of Woodbury, 231
Tremolite, 141 9 236, 237, 238, 241°
PEE233a2
Troy Lyceum, 173
Troy, rocks between, and Williamstown, 246
Tuckahoe, 369 Tully, Dr. Wm. on Ergot, 45
Turritella, 44
U.
‘Uses, economical, of New-Jersey ores of zinc, 326 #
= V.
Vacuum, heat of, 343
Van Rensselaer, Dr. ascends Mount Blane, 1
rs, latent heat of, 361
Vapou
insite: metallic, 349 View from the Kaatskills, 19
~ Vole papas
remarks on, 340 Volney, death of, 345
- W.
Wacke, 12 . Water, in a 2 14
Waterfall, 209 _ Waveliit te, 249° :
ent, 16
indsor, East, are bones discovered i in, 146
Woodbury basin, 23 2 bog
ae Le ‘cd
Loolite of New-Jersey, 191—of Woodbury, 232 &
Zinc ores of New-Jersey, ork of, Vag
Zircon, fusion of, 292
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